Modern Aurobindo Sri Aurobindo (Bengali: শ্রী অরবিন্দ (অরবিন্দ ঘোষ) Sri Ôrobindo) (15 August 1872 – 5 December 1950) was an Indian nationalist and freedom fighter, major Indian English poet, philosopher, and yogi. He joined the movement for India's freedom from British rule and for a duration (1905–10), became one of · Coomaraswamy Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy (b. 22 August 1877, Colombo, Ceylon, d. 9 September 1947, Needham, Massachusetts) was a Ceylonese philosopher and metaphysician, as well as a pioneering historian and philosopher of Indian art, particularly art history and symbolism, and an early interpreter of Indian culture to the West. In particular, he is described · Dayananda Saraswati Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati (February 12, 1824 – October 31, 1883) was an important Hindu religious scholar, reformer and the founder of the Arya Samaj, "Society of Nobles", a Hindu reform movement, founded in 1875. He was the first man who gave the call for Swarajya - "India for Indians" in 1876 which was later furthered by · Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી, pronounced [moːɦən̪d̪aːs kərəmʨən̪d̪ ɡaːn̪d̪ʱiː] ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of India during the Indian independence movement. He pioneered satyagraha—resistance to tyranny · Krishnananda Sri Swami Krishnananda Saraswati Maharaj was a Hindu saint. He was a foremost disciple of Swami Sivananda and served as the General Secretary of the Divine Life Society in Rishikesh, India from 1958 until 2001. Author of more than 200 texts, Krishnananda wrote and lectured prolifically on yoga, religion, and metaphysics. His lectures, though · Narayana Guru Sri Nārāyana Guru (1855–1928), also known as Sree Nārāyana Guru Swami, was a Hindu saint, sage, prophet and social reformer of India. The Guru was born into an Ezhava family, in an era when people from backward communities like the Ezhavas faced much social injustices in the caste-ridden Kerala society. Gurudevan, as he was fondly known to · Prabhupada Abhay Charanaravinda Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (September 1, 1896 – November 14, 1977) was a Gaudiya Vaishnava teacher and the founder-acharya of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, commonly known as the "Hare Krishna Movement". His mission was to propagate the Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a form of Hinduism that had been · Ramakrishna Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (February 18, 1836 - August 16, 1886), born Gadadhar Chattopadhyay (Bangla: গদাধর চট্টোপাধ্যায় Gôdadhor Chôţţopaddhae), was a famous mystic of 19th-century India. His religious school of thought led to the formation of the Ramakrishna Mission by his chief disciple Swami · Ramana Maharshi Sri Ramana Maharshi (December 30, 1879 – April 14, 1950), born Venkataraman Iyer, was a Hindu sage. He was born to a Tamil-speaking Brahmin family in Tiruchuzhi, Tamil Nadu. After having attained liberation at the age of 16, he left home for Arunachala, a mountain considered sacred by Hindus, at Tiruvannamalai, and lived there for the rest of · Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, OM, FBA, ; (5 September 1888 – 17 April 1975), was an Indian philosopher and statesman. He was the first Vice-President of India (1952-1962), and its second President (1962-1967) · Sivananda Swami Sivananda Saraswati was a Hindu spiritual teacher and a well known proponent of Sivananda Yoga and Vedanta. Sivananda was born Kuppuswami in Pattamadai, in the Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. He studied medicine and served in Malaya as a physician for several years before taking up monasticism. He lived most of the later part of his life · Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda (January 12, 1863–July 4, 1902), born Narendranath Dutta was the chief disciple of the 19th century mystic Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and the founder of Ramakrishna Mission. He is considered a key figure in the introduction of Hindu philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga in Europe and America and is also credited with raising · Yogananda Paramahansa Yogananda , born Mukunda Lal Ghosh (Bengali: মুকুন্দ লাল ঘোষ Mukundo Lal Ghosh), was an Indian yogi and guru who introduced many westerners to the teachings of meditation and Kriya Yoga through his book, Autobiography of a Yogi

Other Topics Hinduism is a religion originating in the Indian subcontinent, based on the Vedas, and one of the oldest religious traditions still practiced today. The term, "Hinduism," is heterogeneous, as Hinduism consists of several schools of thought. It encompasses many religious rituals that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects

Hindu denominations Hinduism comprises numerous sects or denominations. The denominations are roughly comparable to different religions. The main divisions in current Hinduism are Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, and Smartism. These four denominations share rituals, beliefs, and traditions, but each denomination has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's Hinduism by country The percentage of Hindu population of each country was taken from the US State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2006. Other sources used were the CIA World Factbook and adherents.com. The total population of each country was taken from census.gov Mythology Hindu mythology is the large body of traditional narratives related to Hinduism, notably as contained in Sanskrit literature, such as the Sanskrit epics and the Puranas. As such, it is a subset of Indian mythology • Hindu calendar The Hindu calendar used in ancient times has undergone many changes in the process of regionalization, and today there are several regional Indian calendars, as well as an Indian national calendar Hindu law Hindu law in its current usage refers to the system of personal laws applied to Hindus, especially in India. Modern Hindu law is thus a part of the law of India established by the Constitution of India (1950) • Hindu iconography Over the millennia of its development Hinduism has adopted several iconic symbols, forming part of Hindu iconography, that are imbued with spiritual meaning based on either the scriptures or cultural traditions. The exact significance accorded to any of the icons varies with region, period and denomination of the followers. Over time some of the Hindu nationalism Hindu nationalism has been collectively referred to the expressions of social and political thought, based on the native spiritual and cultural traditions of historical India. Some scholars have argued that the term 'Hindu nationalism' which refers to the concept of 'Hindu Rashtra' is a simplistic translation and is better described by the term ' • Hindutva Hindutva is the term used to describe movements advocating Hindu nationalism. Members of the movement are called Hindutvavādis.[citation needed] Hindu pilgrimage sites In religion and spirituality, a pilgrimage is a long journey or search of great moral significance. Sometimes, it is a journey to a sacred place or shrine of importance to a person's beliefs and faith. Members of every major religion participate in pilgrimages. A person who makes such a journey is called a pilgrim Persecution The Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent led to widespread carnage because Muslims regarded the Hindus as infidels and therefore slaughtered and converted millions of Hindus. Will Durant argued in his 1935 book "The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage" : • Criticism Garbhadhana · Pumsavana · Simantonayana · Jatakarma · Namakarana · Nishkramana · Annaprashana · Chudakarana · Karnavedha · Vidyarambha · Upanayana · Praishartha · Keshanta · Ritushuddhi · Samavartana · Vivaha · Antyeshti Glossary

Hinduism Portal Hinduism is a religion originating in the Indian subcontinent, based on the Vedas, and one of the oldest religious traditions still practiced today. The term, "Hinduism," is heterogeneous, as Hinduism consists of several schools of thought. It encompasses many religious rituals that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects Hindu Mythology Portal Hindu mythology is the large body of mythology related to Hinduism, notably as contained in Sanskrit literature, such as the Sanskrit epics and the Puranas. As such, it is a subset of Indian mythology

Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition Religion (from O.Fr. religion "religious community," from L. religionem "respect for what is sacred, reverence for the gods," "obligation, the bond between man and the gods" is the belief in and worship of a god or gods, or more in general a set of beliefs explaining the existence of and giving meaning to the universe,^[1] of South Asia South Asia, also known as Southern Asia, is the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the sub-Himalayan countries and, for some authorities , also includes the adjoining countries on the west and the east. Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian Plate, which rises above sea level as the Indian subcontinent south of the. Hinduism is often referred to as Sanātana Dharma The Sanskrit term Sanātana Dharma or Dharmam Sanātanam (Pali: Dhammo Sanatano धम्मो सनातानो), translating to approximately "eternal law", is a historical phrase revived in late 19th century Hindu revivalism as a name for Hinduism, first used by Vivekananda.[citation needed] (a Sanskrit Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism and Buddhism[note 1]. Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand. Sanskrit has been declared a classical language by the Government of India phrase meaning "the eternal law Dharma (Sanskrit: dhárma, Pāḷi dhamma) is a multivalent term of great importance in Indian philosophy and religions. In the context of Hinduism, it means one's righteous duty, and a Hindu's dharma is affected by the person's age, class, occupation, and gender. In modern Indian languages it can be equivalent simply to religion, depending on") by its adherents.^[2][3] Generic "types" of Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex views span folk Folk Hinduism or Popular Hinduism is the aspect of Hinduism as a folk religion, i.e. nominal Hinduism mixed with Animist practice, as opposed to its scholastic or mystical aspects . Folk Hinduism is emphatically polytheistic, as opposed to Brahmanism or Vedantic Hinduism, which emphasize Monism or Monotheism and Vedic Hinduism The religion of the Vedic period is a historical predecessor of Hinduism. Its liturgy is reflected in the Mantra portion of the four Vedas, which are compiled in Sanskrit. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rites that often involved sacrifices. This mode of worship is largely unchanged today within Hinduism; however, only a to bhakti Bhakti in practice signifies an active involvement by the devotee in divine worship. The term is often translated as "devotion", though increasingly "participation" is being used as a more accurate rendering, since it conveys a fully engaged relationship with God. One who practices bhakti is called a bhakta, while bhakti as a tradition, as in Vaishnavism Vaishnavism is a tradition of Hinduism, distinguished from other schools by its worship of Vishnu or his associated avatars, principally as Rama and Krishna, as the original and supreme God. This worship in different perspectives or historical traditions addresses God under the names of Narayana, Krishna, Vāsudeva or more often "Vishnu",. Hinduism also includes yogic Yoga refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India. The word is associated with meditative practices in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Within Hinduism, it also refers to one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy, and to the goal towards which that school directs its practices. In Jainism, yoga is traditions and a wide spectrum of "daily morality" based on the notion of karma Karma (Sanskrit: कर्म kárma , kárman- "act, action, performance"; Pali: kamma) in Indian religions is the concept of "action" or "deed", understood as that which causes the entire cycle of cause and effect (i.e., the cycle called saṃsāra) originating in ancient India and treated in Hindu, Jain, Buddhist and societal norms such as Hindu marriage customs Vivāha is the Sanskrit term for marriage. In Hinduism, it is viewed as one of the saṁskāras and not a contract. Hindu families are patrilocal.

Hinduism is formed of diverse traditions and has no single founder.^[4] Among its roots is the historical Vedic religion The religion of the Vedic period is a historical predecessor of Hinduism. Its liturgy is reflected in the Mantra portion of the four Vedas, which are compiled in Sanskrit. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rites that often involved sacrifices. This mode of worship is largely unchanged today within Hinduism; however, only a of Iron Age India The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition. The main Iron Age archaeological cultures of India are the Painted Grey Ware culture (1100 to 350 BC) and the Northern Black Polished Ware (700 to 200 BC), and as such Hinduism is often called the "oldest living religion Urreligion is a notion of an "original" or "oldest" form of religious tradition. The term contrasts with organized religion, such as the theocracies of the early urban cultures of the Ancient Near East or current world religions. The term originates in German Romanticism. The Oeconomische Encyclopädie of J. G. Krünitz (1773 -"^[5] or the "oldest living major tradition".^[6][7][8][9]

Demographically, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion The world's principal religions and spiritual traditions may be classified into a small number of major groups, although this is by no means a uniform practice. This theory began in the 18th century with the goal of recognizing the relative levels of civility in non-European societies. However, it quickly transformed into a subset of the, after Christianity Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. Christianity comprises three major branches: Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy (which parted ways with Catholicism in 1054 A.D.) and Protestantism (which came into existence during the Protestant Reformation of the 16th and Islam Islam (Arabic: الإسلام‎ al-’islām, pronounced [ʔislæːm] [note 1]) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of their one, incomparable God (Arabic: الله‎, Allāh), and by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad's teachings and normative example (in Arabic called, with approximately one billion adherents, of whom approximately 828 million live in the Republic of India India, officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.18 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India.^[10] Other significant populations The percentage of Hindu population of each country was taken from the US State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2006. Other sources used were the CIA World Factbook and adherents.com. The total population of each country was taken from census.gov are found in Nepal Nepal (pronounced /nəˈpal/ nə-PAHL, /-pal/ -PAWL; Nepali: नेपाल [neˈpal] ), officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a himalayan country in South Asia and, as of 2010, the world's most recent nation to become a republic. It is bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by (23 million), Bangladesh Bangladesh (Bengali: বাংলাদেশ, pronounced /bæŋgləˈdɛʃ/; Bangladesh), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh (Bengali: গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ Gônoprojatontri Banglādeśh) is a country in South Asia. It is bordered by India on all sides except for a small border with Burma (14 million) and the Indonesian Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With a population of around 230 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, and has the world's largest population of Muslims. Indonesia is a republic, with an island of Bali (3.3 million).

A large body of texts is classified as Hindu, divided into Śruti ("revealed") and Smriti ("remembered") texts. These texts discuss theology, philosophy and mythology, and provide information on the practice of dharma (religious living). Among these texts, the Vedas are the foremost in authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures include the Upanishads, Purāṇas and the epics Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa. The Bhagavad Gītā, a treatise from the Mahābhārata, spoken by Krishna, is of special importance.^[11]

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Typology 4 Definitions 5 Beliefs 5.1 Concept of God 5.2 Devas and avatars 5.3 Karma and samsara 5.4 Objectives of human life 5.5 Yoga 6 Practices 6.1 Rituals 6.2 Pilgrimage and festivals 6.3 Bali Sacrifice 7 Scriptures 7.1 Shruti 7.2 Smritis 8 Society 8.1 Denominations 8.2 Ashramas 8.3 Monasticism 8.4 Varnas 8.5 Ahimsa and vegetarianism 8.6 Conversion 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links

Etymology

The word Hindu is derived from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent.^[12] and is first mentioned in the Rig Veda^[13]The usage of the word Hindu was further popularized by the Arabic term al-Hind referring to the land of the people who live across river Indus.^[14] By the 13th century, Hindustān emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of Hindus".^[15]

Originally, Hindu was a secular term which was used to describe all inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent (or Hindustan) irrespective of their religious affiliation. It occurs sporadically in some 16th-18th century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts, including Chaitanya Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata, usually to contrast Hindus with Yavanas or Mlecchas.^[16] It was only towards the end of the 18th century that the European merchants and colonists referred collectively to the followers of Indian religions as Hindus. Eventually, it came to define a precisely religious identity that includes any person of Indian origin who neither practiced Abrahamic religions nor non-Vedic Indian religions, such as Jainism, Sikhism or Buddhism, thereby encompassing a wide range of religious beliefs and practices related to Sanātana Dharma.^[17][18]

The term Hinduism was introduced into the English language in the 19th century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.^[19]

History

Main article: History of Hinduism Sacred Mount Kailash in Tibet is regarded as the spiritual abode of Shiva.

The earliest evidence for prehistoric religion in India date back to the late Neolithic in the early Harappan period (5500–2600 BCE).^[20][21] The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500 BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas, the oldest of which is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE.^[22] The Vedas center on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. Fire-sacrifices, called yajña were performed, and Vedic mantras chanted but no temples or icons were built.^[23] The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and other Indo-European religions.^[24]

The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE. They contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.

Three major movements underpinned the naissance of a new epoch of Hindu thought: the advent and spread of Upanishadic, Jaina, and Buddhist philosophico-religious thought throughout the broader Indian landmass.^[25] Mahavira (24th Tirthankar of Jains) and Buddha (founder of Buddhism) taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana, one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste system. Buddha went a step further and claimed that the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary.^[26] Buddhism peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.^[27] Charvaka, the founder of an atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India in the sixth century BCE.^[28] Between 400 BCE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded at the expense of Buddhism.^[29]

Sanskritic culture went into decline after the end of the Gupta period. The early medieval Puranas helped establish a religious mainstream among the pre-literate tribal societies undergoing acculturation. The tenets of Brahmanic Hinduism and of the Dharmashastras underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of a mainstream "Hinduism" that overshadowed all earlier traditions.^[30]

Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of Sindh, it started to become a major religion during the later Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent.^[28] During this period Buddhism declined rapidly and many Hindus converted to Islam. Numerous Muslim rulers such as Aurangzeb destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted non-Muslims; however some, such as Akbar, were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes, in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya.^[28] Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible avatars, especially Krishna and Rama.^[31]

The Swaminarayan sect's Akshardham Temple in Delhi, according the Guinness World Records is the World’s Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple

Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. This period saw the emergence of movements which, while highly innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They were based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Aurobindo and Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON), translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Vivekananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have also been instrumental in raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West. Today modern movements, such as ISKCON and the Swaminarayan Faith, attract a large amount of followers across the world.^[32]

Typology

Main article: Hindu denominations

Hinduism as we know it can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darshanas, only two schools, Vedanta and Yoga survive. The main divisions of Hinduism today are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Smartism and Shaktism.^[33] Hinduism also recognizes numerous divine beings subordinate to the Supreme Being or regards them as lower manifestations of it.^[34] Other notable characteristics include a belief in reincarnation and karma, as well as in personal duty, or dharma.

McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic "types" of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject:^[35]

• Folk Hinduism, as based on local traditions and cults of local deities at a communal level and spanning back to prehistoric times or at least prior to written Vedas.
• Vedic Hinduism as still being practiced by traditionalist brahmins (for example shrautins).
• Vedantic Hinduism, for example Advaita (Smartism), as based on the philosophical approach of the Upanishads.
• Yogic Hinduism, especially that based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
• "Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality", based on the notion of Karma, and upon societal norms such as Hindu marriage customs.
• Bhakti or devotionalism, especially as in Vaishnavism.

Definitions

Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in declaration of faith or a creed",^[36] but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena originating and based on the Vedic traditions.^{[37][38][39][40]}

The term Hindu in origin is a Persian word in use from the time of the Delhi Sultanate, referring to any tradition that is native to India as opposed to Islam. Hindu is used in the sense of "Indian pagan" in English from the 17th century,^[41] but the notion of Hinduism as an identifiable religious tradition qualifying as one of the world religions emerged only during the 19th century.

The characteristic of comprehensive tolerance to differences in belief, and Hinduism's openness, makes it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.^[42] To its adherents, Hinduism is the traditional way of life,^[43] and because of the wide range of traditions and ideas incorporated within or covered by it, arriving at a comprehensive definition of the term is problematic.^[36] While sometimes referred to as a religion, Hinduism is more often defined as a religious tradition.^[1] It is therefore described as both the oldest of the world's religions, and the most diverse.^{[6][44][45][46]} Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions. Some Hindu religious traditions regard particular rituals as essential for salvation, but a variety of views on this co-exist. Some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, of sustenance, and of destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists. Hinduism is sometimes characterized by the belief in reincarnation (samsara), determined by the law of karma, and the idea that salvation is freedom from this cycle of repeated birth and death. However, other religions of the region, such as Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, also believe in karma, outside the scope of Hinduism.^[36] Hinduism is therefore viewed as the most complex of all of the living, historical world religions.^[47] Despite its complexity, Hinduism is not only one of the numerically largest faiths, but is also the oldest living major tradition on earth, with roots reaching back into prehistory.^[48]

A definition of Hinduism, given by the first Vice President of India, who was also a prominent theologian, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, states that Hinduism is not "just a faith", but in itself is related to the union of reason and intuition. Radhakrishnan explicitly states that Hinduism cannot be defined, but is only to be experienced.^[49] Similarly some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges", rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism, while others are not as central but still remain within the category. Based on this, Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.^[50]

Problems with the single definition of what is actually meant by the term 'Hinduism' are often attributed to the fact that Hinduism does not have a single or common historical founder. Hinduism, or as some say 'Hinduisms,' does not have a single system of salvation and has different goals according to each sect or denomination. The forms of Vedic religion are seen not as an alternative to Hinduism, but as its earliest form, and there is little justification for the divisions found in much western scholarly writing between Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism.^[9][51]

A definition of Hinduism is further complicated by the frequent use of the term "faith" as a synonym for "religion".^[36] Some academics^[52] and many practitioners refer to Hinduism using a native definition, as Sanātana Dharma, a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", or the "eternal way".^[2][53]

Beliefs

Temple carving at Hoysaleswara temple representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.

Hinduism refers to a religious mainstream which evolved organically and spread over a large territory marked by significant ethnic and cultural diversity. This mainstream evolved both by innovation from within, and by assimilation of external traditions or cults into the Hindu fold. The result is an enormous variety of religious traditions, ranging from innumerable small, unsophisticated cults to major religious movements with millions of adherents spread over the entire subcontinent. The identification of Hinduism as an independent religion separate from Buddhism or Jainism consequently hinges on the affirmation of its adherents that it is such.^[54]

Hinduism conceives the whole world as a single family that deifies the one truth, and therefore it accepts all forms of beliefs and dismisses labels of distinct religions which would imply a division of identity.^[55][56][57] Hence, Hinduism is devoid of the concepts of apostasy, heresy and blasphemy.^{[58][59][60][61]} Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to), Dharma (ethics/duties), Samsāra (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara), and the various Yogas (paths or practices).^[62]

Concept of God

Main article: God in Hinduism

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, atheism, agnosticism, gnosticism among others;^{[63][64][65][66]} and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each particular tradition and philosophy. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.^[67]

Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul — the true "self" of every person, called the ātman — is eternal.^[68] According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Hence, these schools are called non-dualist.^[69] The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one's ātman is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.^[70] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self realizes an identity with Brahman and thereby reaches moksha (liberation or freedom).^[68][71]

Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality, and they worship him or her thus, as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. The ātman is dependent on God, while moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace.^[72] When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle), God is called Ishvara ("The Lord"),^[73] Bhagavan ("The Auspicious One"^[73]) or Parameshwara ("The Supreme Lord"^[73]).^[69] However interpretations of Ishvara vary, ranging from non-belief in Ishvara by followers of Mimamsakas, to identifying Brahman and Ishvara as one, as in Advaita.^[69] In the majority of traditions of Vaishnavism he is Vishnu, God, and the text of Vaishnava scriptures identify this Being as Krishna, sometimes referred to as svayam bhagavan. There are also schools like the Samkhya which have atheistic leanings.^[74]

Devas and avatars

Krishna, the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Vishnu or svayam bhagavan, worshiped across a number of traditions

The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or devī in feminine form; devatā used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings".^[75] The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a supreme personal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations (ostensibly separate deities) as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal.^[76][77] The choice is a matter of individual preference,^[78] and of regional and family traditions.^[78]

Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to restore dharma to society and to guide humans to moksha. Such an incarnation is called an avatar. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu and include Rama (the protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata).

Karma and samsara

Main article: Karma in Hinduism

Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed,^[79] and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".^[80] According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The linga sharira, a body more subtle than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.^[81] Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as to one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma binds together the notions of free will and destiny.

This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states that:

“

As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes, similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)[82]

”

Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.^[83][84] It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).

The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such realization liberates one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth.^[85][86] Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul,^[87] death is deemed insignificant with respect to the cosmic self.^[88] Thence, a person who has no desire or ambition left and no responsibilities remaining in life or one affected by a terminal disease may embrace death by Prayopavesa.^[89]

The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven),^[90] in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it is said that the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar", while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar".^[91]

Objectives of human life

Main article: Purusharthas

Classical Hindu thought accepts the following objectives of human life, known as the puruṣārthas: dharma "righteousness, ethikos;" artha "livelihood, wealth;" kāma "sensual pleasure;" mokṣa "liberation, freedom (from samsara)".^[92][93]

Yoga

Main article: Yoga A statue of Shiva in yogic meditation.

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths that one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi or nirvana) include:

• Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion)
• Karma Yoga (the path of right action)
• Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation)
• Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom)^[94]

An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Some devotional schools teach that bhakti is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the Kali Yuga (one of four epochs which are part of the Yuga cycle).^[95] Practice of one yoga does not exclude others. Many schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of jnana yoga, is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga), and vice versa.^[96] Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in raja yoga) must embody the core principles of karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga, whether directly or indirectly.^[94][97]

Practices

Main articles: Puja (Hinduism), Yajna, Murti, Mandir, Hindu iconography, Japa, and Mantra The visarjan (nimarjan) ceremony of Lord Ganesha during the Chaturthi festival.

Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. Hindus can engage in pūjā (worship or veneration),^[73] either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to their chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities though some commemorate multiple deities. Visiting temples is not obligatory,^[98] and many visit temples only during religious festivals. Hindus perform their worship through icons (murtis). The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshiper and God.^[99] The image is often considered a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The Padma Purana states that the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity.^[100] A few Hindu sects, such as the Ārya Samāj, do not believe in worshiping God through icons.

Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The syllable Om (which represents the Parabrahman) and the Swastika sign (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as tilaka identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, chakra and veena, with particular deities.

Mantras are invocations, praise and prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a devotee focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri Mantra or Mahamrityunjaya mantras.^[101] The epic Mahabharata extols Japa (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest duty in the Kali Yuga (what Hindus believe to be the current age).^[102] Many adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice.^[102]

Rituals

Traditional diyas and other prayer items during a Hindu wedding ceremony.

The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a daily basis.^[103] Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.^[104] but observation of rituals greatly vary among regions, villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns, meditation, chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc.^[104] A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.^[104] Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.^[104] Vedic rites of fire-oblation (yajna) are now only occasional practices, although they are highly revered in theory. In Hindu wedding and burial ceremonies, however, the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras are still the norm.^[105] The rituals, upacharas, change with time. For instance, in the past few hundred years some rituals, such as sacred dance and music offerings in the standard Sodasa Upacharas set prescribed by the Agama Shastra, were replaced by the offerings of rice and sweets.

Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, life-cycle rituals include Annaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid food), Upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by upper-caste children at their initiation into formal education) and Śrāddha (ritual of treating people to feasts in the name of the deceased).^[106][107] For most people in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers.^[106] On death, cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, hijra, and children under five.^[108] Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a pyre.

Pilgrimage and festivals

Main article: Hindu festivals Diwali, the festival of lights, is a prime festival of Hinduism. Shown here are traditional Diyas that are often lit during Diwali

Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many adherents undertake them^[109] Hindus recognise several Indian holy cities, including Allahabad, Haridwar, Varanasi, and Vrindavan. Notable temple cities include Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple. The four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath (or alternatively the Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri) compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage circuit. The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every four years; the location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain. Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas, where the Mother Goddess is worshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya.

Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. The Hindu calendar usually prescribe their dates. The festivals typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the Indian subcontinent. Some widely observed Hindu festivals are Maha Shivaratri, Holi, Ram Navami, Krishna Janmastami, Ganesh Chaturthi, Dussera, Durga Puja and Diwali.

Bali Sacrifice

Main article: Bali Sacrifice

Bali Sacrifice^[110] (sometimes known as Jhatka Bali) is the ritual killing of an animal in Hinduism.

The ritual sacrifice normally forms part of a festival to honour a Hindu God. For example, in Nepal the Hindu goddess Gadhimai^[111], is honoured every 5 years with the slaughter of 250,000 animals. Bali sacrifice today is common at the Sakta shrines of the Godess Kali^[112].

Scriptures

See also List of Hindu scriptures

Main articles: Śruti and Smriti The Rig Veda is one of the oldest religious texts. This Rig Veda manuscript is in Devanagari

Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times".^[113][114] The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down.^[115] Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. In post-Vedic and current Hindu belief, most Hindu scriptures are not typically interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them.^[20] Most sacred texts are in Sanskrit. The texts are classified into two classes: Shruti and Smriti.

Shruti

Shruti (lit: that which is heard)^[116] primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While many Hindus revere the Vedas as eternal truths revealed to ancient sages (Ṛṣis),^[114] some devotees do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a god or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.^{[113][117][118]} Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways.^[119]

There are four Vedas (called Ṛg-, Sāma-, Yajus- and Atharva-). The Rigveda is the first and most important Veda.^[120] Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the Veda proper, being the Saṃhitā, which contains sacred mantras. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose and are believed to be slightly later in age than the Saṃhitā. These are: the Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and the Upanishads. The first two parts were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa (knowledge portion).^[121] While the Vedas focus on rituals, the Upanishads focus on spiritual insight and philosophical teachings, and discuss Brahman and reincarnation.^{[20][122][123]}

Smritis

The Naradeya Purana describes the mechanics of the cosmos. Depicted here are Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi resting on Shesha Nag. Narada and Brahma are also pictured.

Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are collectively called the Smritis (memory). The most notable of the smritis are the epics, which consist of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. The Bhagavad Gītā is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical teachings from Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, told to the prince Arjuna on the eve of a great war. The Bhagavad Gītā, spoken by Krishna, is described as the essence of the Vedas.^[124] However Gita, sometimes called Gitopanishad, is more often placed in the Shruti, category, being Upanishadic in content.^[125] Purāṇas, which illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid narratives come under smritis. Other texts include Devī Mahātmya, the Tantras, the Yoga Sutras, Tirumantiram, Shiva Sutras and the Hindu Āgamas. A more controversial text, the Manusmriti, is a prescriptive lawbook which lays the societal codes of social stratification which later evolved into the Indian caste system.^[126]

Society

Denominations

Main article: Hindu denominations The Vaishnava Tirumala Venkateswara Temple the most visited and richest Hindu temple in the world.

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination.^[127] However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. The denominations differ primarily in the god worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that god.

Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as the supreme God; Shaivites worship Shiva as the supreme; Shaktas worship Shakti (power) personified through a female divinity or Mother Goddess, Devi; while Smartas believe in the essential oneness of five (panchadeva) or six (Shanmata, as Tamil Hindus add Skanda)^[128] deities as personifications of the Supreme.

The Western conception of what Hinduism is has been defined by the Smarta view; many Hindus, who may not understand or follow Advaita philosophy, in contemporary Hinduism, invariably follow the Shanmata belief worshiping many forms of God. One commentator, noting the influence of the Smarta tradition, remarked that although many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by adhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers.^[129]

Other denominations like Ganapatya (the cult of Ganesha) and Saura (Sun worship) are not so widespread.

There are movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj, which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (yajña).

The Tantric traditions have various sects, as Banerji observes:

“

Tantras are ... also divided as āstika or Vedic and nāstika or non-Vedic. In accordance with the predominance of the deity the āstika works are again divided as Śākta (Shakta), Śaiva (Shaiva), Saura, Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava (Vaishnava).[130]

”

Ashramas

Main article: Ashrama

Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āshramas (phases or stages; unrelated meanings include monastery). The first part of one's life, Brahmacharya, the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a Guru, building up the mind for spiritual knowledge. Grihastha is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies kāma and artha in one's married and professional life respectively (see the goals of life). The moral obligations of a Hindu householder include supporting one's parents, children, guests and holy figures. Vānaprastha, the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in religious practices and embarking on holy pilgrimages. Finally, in Sannyāsa, the stage of asceticism, one renounces all worldly attachments to secludedly find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for Moksha.^[131]

Monasticism

Main article: Sannyasa

Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.^[132] A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi. A female renunciate is called a sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs.^[133] It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.^[132]

Varnas

Main article: Varna in Hinduism

Hindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called Varnas (Sanskrit: "colour, form, appearance"):^[73]

• the Brahmins: teachers and priests;
• the Kshatriyas: warriors, nobles, and kings;
• the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and
• the Shudras: servants and labourers.

Hindus and scholars debate whether the so-called caste system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social custom.^[134] Among the scriptures, the Varna system is mentioned sparingly and descriptively (i.e., not prescriptive); apart from a single mention in the late Rigvedic Purusha sukta, the rigid division into varnas appears to be post-Vedic, appearing in classical texts from the Maurya period. The Bhagavad Gītā (4.13) states that the four varṇa divisions are created by God, and the Manusmṛiti categorizes the different castes.^[135] However, at the same time, the Gītā says that one's varṇa is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth.^[136] Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists.^[137][138]

Many social reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar, criticized caste discrimination.^[139] The religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna (1836–1886) taught that

“

"Lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through bhakti (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated."[140]

”

Ahimsa and vegetarianism

Main articles: Ahimsa and Vegetarianism and religion

Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.^[141] The term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads,^[142] the epic Mahabharata^[143] and Ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.^[144]

In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. Vegetarianism is propagated by the Yajur Veda and it is recommended for a satvic (purifying) lifestyle.^[145] Estimates of the number of lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%.^[146] The food habits vary with the community and region, for example some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood.^[147][148] Some Hindus avoid onion and garlic, which are regarded as rajasic foods.^[149] Some avoid meat only on specific holy days.

Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure,^[150] and Hindu society honors the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving.^[151]

Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India.^[152] See further discussion at Cattle in Religion and Food taboo.

Conversion

See also: List of converts to Hinduism

Concepts of conversion, evangelization, and proselytization in practice have never played a significant role in the religion. Early in its history, in the absence of other competing religions, Hindus considered everyone they came across as Hindus and expected everyone they met to be Hindus.^[153][154]

Hindus today continue to be influenced by historical ideas of acceptability of conversion. Hence, many Hindus continue to believe that Hinduism is an identity that can only be had from birth, while many others continue to believe that anyone who follows Hindu beliefs and practices is a Hindu, and many believe in some form of both theories. However, as a reaction to perceived and actual threat of evangelization, prozelyzation, and conversion activities of other major religions most modern Hindus are opposed to the idea of conversion from (any) one religion to (any) other per se.^[155]

Hindus in Western countries generally accept and welcome willing converts, whereas in India acceptance of willing converts is becoming more common. With the rise of Hindu revivalist movements, reconversions to Hinduism have also risen.^[156] Reconversions are well accepted since conversion out of Hinduism is not recognized.^[157] Conversion into Hinduism through marriage is well accepted and often expected to enable the non-Hindu partner to fully participate in their spiritual, religious, and cultural roles within the larger Hindu family and society.^{[citation needed]}

There is no formal process for converting to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called dīkshā ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life. A ritual called shuddhi ("purification") sometimes marks the return to spiritual life after reconversion. Most Hindu sects do not seek converts,^{[158][159][160][161]} as they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely.^[158][162] However, some Hindu sects and affiliates such as Arya Samaj, Saiva Siddhanta Church, BAPS, and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness accept those who have a desire to follow Hinduism.

In general, Hindu view of religious freedom is not based on the freedom to proselytize, but the right to retain one's religion and not be subject to proselytization. Hindu leaders are advocating for changing the existing formulation of the freedom of religion clause in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights since it favors religions which proselytize.^[163]

See also

Hinduism portal

Hinduism

Hindu Hinduism by country List of related articles

Hindu deities List of Hindu temples Hindu calendar

Hindu denominations Hindu reform movements Hindu mythology

List of notable Hindus Criticism of Hinduism Atheism in Hinduism

Related systems and religions

Hinduism and other religions Eastern philosophy Indian religions Hellenism and Hinduism

Zoroastrianism Jainism Buddhism Buddhism and Hinduism

Hindu philosophy Christianity and Hinduism Hinduism and Sikhism Ayyavazhi Verhudtbrahma

Ayyavazhi and Hinduism Islam and Hinduism Proto-Indo-Iranian religion Proto-Indo-European religion

Hinduism in popular culture

Hinduism in Avatar (2009 film)

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b} Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Gavin Flood (2003), pp. 1-17. René Guénon in his Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8, proposes a definition of the term "religion" and a discussion of its relevance (or lack of) to Hindu doctrines (part II, chapter 4, p. 58).
2. ^ ^{a b} The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Ed. John Bowker. Oxford University Press, 2000;
3. ^ The term "Dharma" connotes much more than simply "law". It is not only the doctrine of religious and moral rights, but also the set of religious duties, social order, right conduct and virtuous things and deeds. As such Dharma is the Code of Ethics.[1] The modern use of the term can be traced to late 19th century Hindu reform movements (J. Zavos, Defending Hindu Tradition: Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of Orthodoxy in Colonial India, Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number 2, April 2001, pp. 109-123; see also R. D. Baird, "Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with Religions", Modern Indian Responses to Religious Pluralism, edited by Harold Coward, State University of New York Press, 1987); less literally also rendered "eternal way" (so Harvey, Andrew (2001), Teachings of the Hindu Mystics, Boulder: Shambhala, xiii, ISBN 1-57062-449-6 ). See also René Guénon, Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8, part III, chapter 5 "The Law of Manu", p. 146. On the meaning of the word "Dharma", see also René Guénon, Studies in Hinduism, Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-69-3, chapter 5, p. 45
4. ^ Osborne 2005, p. 9
5. ^ Morgan, Sarma 1953
6. ^ ^{a b} Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia, Merriam-Webster, 2000, p. 751
7. ^ Laderman, Gary (2003), Religion and American Cultures: An Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions, Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, pp. 119, ISBN 1-57607-238-X, "world's oldest living civilization and religion"
8. ^ Turner, Jeffrey S. (1996), Encyclopedia of relationships across the lifespan, Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, pp. 359, ISBN 0-313-29576-X, "It is also recognized as the oldest major religion in the world"
9. ^ ^{a b} Klostermaier 1994, p. 1
10. ^ "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html. Retrieved 2007-07-10.
11. ^ The Gita Dhyanam is a traditional short poem sometimes found as a prefatory to editions of the Bhagavad Gita. Verse 4 refers to all the Upanishads as the cows, and the Gita as the milk drawn from them. (Chidbhavananda 1997, pp. 67–74)
12. ^ "India", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford University Press.
13. ^ http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm
14. ^ Thapar, R. 1993. Interpreting Early India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 77
15. ^ Thompson Platts, John. A dictionary of Urdu , classical Hindī, and English. W.H. Allen & Co., Oxford University 1884.
16. ^ O'Conell, Joseph T. (1973). "The Word 'Hindu' in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Texts". Journal of the American Oriental Society 93 (3): pp. 340–344.
17. ^ http://veda.wikidot.com/sanatana-dharma
18. ^ http://www.religionfacts.com/hinduism/sects.htm
19. ^ "...that many-sided and all-enfolding culture which we in the West have chosen to call Hinduism" Jan Gonda, Visnuism and Sivaism, Munshiram Manoharlal. 1996, ISBN 812150287X p. 1. cited by Welbon, G.R. (Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 43, No. 1, 98+100. March, 1975.), Review: Love of God According to Saiva Siddhanta: A Study in the Mysticism and Theology of Saivism by Mariasusay Dhanamoy.
20. ^ ^{a b c} Nikhilananda 1990, pp. 3–8
21. ^ "Hindu History" The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000 BCE)".
22. ^ T. Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100.
23. ^ Falcao, Nelson (2003). Kristapurāṇa, a Christian-Hindu encounter: a study of inculturation in the Kristapurāṇa of Thomas Stephens, S.J. (1549-1619). Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. p. 99. ISBN 9788187886723. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=VRo2AAAAMAAJ.
24. ^ The Ṛgvedic deity Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Iovis (gen. of Jupiter) —the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Tiu/Ziu in Germanic mythology [2], cf. English 'Tues-day'. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see Proto-Indo-European religion.
25. ^ Olivelle, Patrick, "The renouncer tradition", in Flood 2003, pp. 273–274
26. ^ Eliot 2003
27. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi.
28. ^ ^{a b c} Basham 1999
29. ^ "The rise of Jainism and Buddhism". Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences. BBC. 26 July 2004. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_2.shtml. Retrieved 2007-04-21.
30. ^ Vijay Nath, From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition, Social Scientist 2001, pp. 19-50.
31. ^ J.T.F. Jordens, "Medieval Hindu Devotionalism" in & Basham 1999
32. ^ Raymond Brady Williams (2004), Williams on South Asian Religions and Immigration: Collected Works, Ashgate Publishing Ltd., ISBN 0754638561, http://books.google.com/?id=nkVBOfE1KkAC&dq=swaminarayan+hare+krishna p.217
33. ^ Adherents.com, which itself references many sources; The World Almanac & Book of Facts 1998 being especially relevant.
34. ^ Flood, Gavin. D. 1996. An introduction to Hinduism. 1996. P.14
35. ^ J. McDaniel Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52-53 ISBN 0195170210
36. ^ ^{a b c d} Flood 2001, Defining Hinduism
37. ^ Smith, W.C. (1962) The Meaning and End of Religion. San Francisco, Harper and Row. p. 65
38. ^ Stietencron, Hinduism: On the Proper Use of A Deceptive Term, pp.1-22
39. ^ Halbfass, (1991) Tradition and Reflection. Albany, SUNY Press. pp. 1-22
40. ^ Smart, (1993) The Formation Rather than the Origin of a Tradition,in DISKUS: A Disembodied Journal of Religious Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 1
41. ^ OED cites J. Davies, tr. Mandelslo's Trav. 74 (1662) The King of Cambaya, who was a Hindou, or Indian, that is, a Pagan. and Sir T. Roe's Voy. E. Ind. in P. della Valle's Trav. E. Ind. 374 (1665) The Inhabitants in general of Indostan were all anciently Gentiles, called in general Hindoes.
42. ^ Bryan S. Turner "Essays on the Sociology of Fate - Page 275"
43. ^ Insoll, Timothy (2001). Archaeology and world religion. Routledge. ISBN 9780415221559. http://books.google.com/books?id=QNxnYjYRuOMC&pg=PA35.
44. ^ Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, p. 434
45. ^ Vaz, P. (2001), "Coexistence of Secularism and Fundamentalism in India", Handbook of Global Social Policy (CRC Press): 124, ISBN 9780824703578, http://books.google.com/?id=opHYPSvPpWYC&pg=PA123&dq=oldest+major+tradition+Hinduism, retrieved 2008-06-26, "Hinduism is the oldest of all the major world religions."
46. ^ Eastman, R. (1999), The Ways of Religion: An Introduction to the Major Traditions, Oxford University Press, USA
47. ^ Joel Beversluis (2000), Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality (Sourcebook of the World's Religions, 3rd ed), Novato, Calif: New World Library, pp. 50, ISBN 1-57731-121-3
48. ^ Weightman & Klostermaier 1994, p. 1
49. ^ Bhagavad Gita, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan: "Hinduism is not just a faith. It is the union of reason and intuition that can not be defined but is only to be experienced."
50. ^ Ferro-Luzzi,(1991)The Polythetic-Prototype Approach to Hinduism in G.D. Sontheimer and H. Kulke (ed.) Hinduism Reconsidered. Delhi: Manohar. pp. 187-95
51. ^ "JSTOR: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 34, No. 2 (April, 1984 ), pp. 234-236". www.jstor.org. http://www.jstor.org/pss/1398925.
52. ^ Hinduism in Britain Kim Knott, (2000) The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and a United States.
53. ^ Harvey, Andrew (2001), Teachings of the Hindu Mystics, Boulder: Shambhala, xiii, ISBN 1-57062-449-6
54. ^ Weightman 1998, pp. 262–264 "It is Hindu self-awareness and self-identity that affirm Hinduism to be one single religious universe, no matter how richly varied its contents, and make it a significant and potent force alongside the other religions of the world."
55. ^ (Rigveda 1:164:46) “Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti” - Truth is one; sages call it many names
56. ^ (Maha Upanishad: Chapter 6, Verse 72) "Vasudhaiva kutumbakam" - The entire world is a one big family
57. ^ Badlani, Hiro (2008). Hinduism: Path of the Ancient Wisdom. iUniverse. p. 303. ISBN 9780595701834. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=8NrQhyxH-GgC.
58. ^ Lane, Jan-Erik; Ersson, Svante (2005). Culture and politics: a comparative approach (Edition 2). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 149. ISBN 9780754645788. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=mKtDY_iJH2QC&pg=PA149.
59. ^ de Lingen, John; Ramsurrun, Pahlad. An Introduction to The Hindu Faith. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 2. ISBN 9788120740860. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=tPoox9hTdYoC&pg=PA2.
60. ^ Murthy, BS (2003). Puppets of Faith: theory of communal strife. Bulusu Satyanarayana Murthy. p. 7. ISBN 9788190191111. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=OBQ_wWNjpZ4C&pg=PA7.
61. ^ "India and Hinduism". Religion of World. ThinkQuest Library. http://library.thinkquest.org/28038/page1_3.html. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
62. ^ Brodd, Jefferey (2003), World Religions, Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5
63. ^ Rogers, Peter (2009). Ultimate Truth, Book 1. AuthorHouse. p. 109. ISBN 9781438979687. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=e3kf6GtwaT0C&pg=PA109.
64. ^ Chakravarti, Sitansu (1991). Hinduism, a way of life. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. p. 71. ISBN 9788120808997. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71.
65. ^ "Polytheism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
66. ^ Pattanaik, Devdutt (2002). The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore. Routledge. p. 38. ISBN 9781560231813. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&pg=PA38.
67. ^ See Michaels 2004, p. xiv and Gill, N.S. ""Henotheism"". About, Inc. http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-05.
68. ^ ^{a b} Monier-Williams 1974, pp. 20–37
69. ^ ^{a b c} & Bhaskarananda 1994
70. ^ Vivekananda 1987
71. ^ Werner 1994, p. p37
72. ^ Werner 1994, p. 7
73. ^ ^{a b c d e} Monier-Williams 2001
74. ^ Sen Gupta 1986, p. viii
75. ^ For translation of deva in singular noun form as "a deity, god", and in plural form as "the gods" or "the heavenly or shining ones", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 492. In fact, there are different ranks among the devas. The highest are the immortal Mahadevas, such as Shiva, Vishnu, etc. The second-rank devas, such as Ganesha, are described as their offspring: they are "born", and their "lifespan" is quite limited. In ISKCON the word is translated as "demigods", although it can also denote such heavenly denizens as gandharvas. See: "Vedic cosmology". Vedic Knowledge Online. VEDA - Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/planetarium/index.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-25. . For translation of devatā as "godhead, divinity", see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 495.
76. ^ Werner 1994, p. 80
77. ^ Renou 1961, p. 55
78. ^ ^{a b} Harman 2004, pp. 104–106
79. ^ * Apte, Vaman S (1997), The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary (New ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, ISBN 8120803000
80. ^ Smith 1991, p. 64
81. ^ Radhakrishnan 1996, p. 254
82. ^ Bhagavad Gita 2.22
83. ^ See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20
84. ^ See Vivekananda, Swami (2005), Jnana Yoga, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1-425482-88-0 301-02 (8th Printing 1993)
85. ^ Rinehart 2004, pp. 19–21
86. ^ Bhaskarananda 1994, pp. 79–86
87. ^ Europa Publications Staff (2003). The Far East and Australasia, 2003 - Regional surveys of the world. Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 9781857431339. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA39.
88. ^ Hindu spirituality - Volume 25 of Documenta missionalia. Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana. 1999. p. 1. ISBN 9788876528187. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC.
89. ^ "Hinduism - Euthanasia and Suicide". BBC. 2009-08-25. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/hinduethics/euthanasia.shtml.
90. ^ The Christian concepts of Heaven and Hell do not translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as Vaikunta (the abode of Vishnu) or loka are the closest analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God.
91. ^ Nikhilananda 1992
92. ^ as discussed in Mahābhārata 12.161; Bilimoria et al. (eds.), Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and Contemporary Challenges (2007), p. 103; see also Werner 1994, Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 7
93. ^ The Philosophy of Hinduism : Four Objectives of Human Life ; Dharma (Right Conduct), Artha (iRght Wealth), Kama (Rght Desire), Moksha (Right Exit (Liberation)), Pustak Mahal, 2006, ISBN 81-223-0945-3
94. ^ ^{a b} Bhaskarananda 1994
95. ^ For example, see the following translation of B-Gita 11.54: "My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you enter into the mysteries of My understanding." (Bhaktivedanta 1997, ch. 11.54)
96. ^ "One who knows that the position reached by means of analytical study can also be attained by devotional service, and who therefore sees analytical study and devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as they are." (Bhaktivedanta 1997, ch. 5.5)
97. ^ Monier-Williams 1974, p. 116
98. ^ Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 157
99. ^ Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 137
100. ^ arcye viṣṇau śīlā-dhīr. . . narakī saḥ.
101. ^ Albertson, Todd (2009). The gods of business: the intersection of faith and the marketplace. p. 71. ISBN 9780615138008. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ipTZBagrIu0C&pg=PA71.
102. ^ ^{a b} Narendranand (Swami) (2008). Hindu spirituality: a help to conduct prayer meetings for Hindus. Jyoti Ashram. p. 51. http://books.google.co.in/books?ei=WwIvTNWQKsSFrAehsKDzBQ.
103. ^ "Religious Life". Religions of India. Global Peace Works. http://www.religionsofindia.org/loc/india_religious_life.html. Retrieved 2007-04-19.
104. ^ ^{a b c d} "Domestic Worship". Country Studies. The Library of Congress. September 1995. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0055). Retrieved 2007-04-19.
105. ^ "Hindu Marriage Act, 1955". http://www.sudhirlaw.com/HMA55.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
106. ^ ^{a b} "Life-Cycle Rituals". Country Studies: India. The Library of Congress. September 1995. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0056). Retrieved 2007-04-19.
107. ^ Banerjee, Suresh Chandra. "Shraddha". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0516.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
108. ^ Garces-Foley 30
109. ^ Fuller 2004
110. ^ O.P. Radhan (Sep 2002) (in English). Encyclopaedia of Political Parties. 33 to 50. Anmol,India. p. 854. ISBN 8174888659. http://www.amazon.co.uk/Encyclopaedia-Political-Parties-O-P-Radhan/dp/8174888659/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1280147889&sr=1-1.
111. ^ Lang, Olivia (24th November 2009). "Hindu sacrifice of 250,000 animals begins" (in English). The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/nov/24/hindu-sacrifice-gadhimai-festival-nepal. Retrieved 27 July 2010.
112. ^ Julius J. Lipner (23 July 1998). "9". Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices) [Paperback]. Routledge; New edition. p. 185. ISBN 0415051827. http://www.amazon.co.uk/Hindus-Religious-Beliefs-Practices-Library/dp/0415051827/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1280238214&sr=1-1#noop. Retrieved 27/10/2010.
113. ^ ^{a b} Vivekananda 1987, pp. 6–7 Vol I
114. ^ ^{a b} Vivekananda 1987, pp. 118–120 Vol III
115. ^ Sargeant & Chapple 1984, p. 3
116. ^ See, for instance, René Guénon Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta (1925 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-62-4, chapter 1, "General remarks on the Vedanta, p.7.
117. ^ Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were created by God, not eternal.
118. ^ Harshananda, Swami (1989), A Bird's Eye View of the Vedas, in "Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great Scriptures of the World" (2nd ed.), Mylapore: Sri Ramakrishna Math, ISBN 81-7120-121-0
119. ^ Vivekananda 1987, p. 374 Vol II
120. ^ Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is one of the earliest Indo-European texts.
121. ^ "Swami Shivananda's mission". http://www.dlshq.org/religions/vedas.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
122. ^ Werner 1994, p. 166
123. ^ Monier-Williams 1974, pp. 25–41
124. ^ Sarvopaniṣado gāvo, etc. (Gītā Māhātmya 6). Gītā Dhyānam, cited in Introduction to Bhagavad-gītā As It Is.
125. ^ Thomas B. Coburn, Scripture" in India: Towards a Typology of the Word in Hindu Life, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 52, No. 3 (September, 1984), pp. 435-459
126. ^ Sawant, Ankush (1996). Manu-smriti and Republic of Plato: a comparative and critical study. Himalaya Pub. House. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=WnLaAAAAMAAJ.
127. ^ Werner 1994, p. 73
128. ^ http://www.mailerindia.com/god/hindu/index.php?skanda
129. ^ Heart of Hinduism: The Smarta Tradition
130. ^ Banerji 1992, p. 2
131. ^ S.S. Rama Rao Pappu, "Hindu Ethics", in Rinehart 2004, pp. 165–168
132. ^ ^{a b} Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 112
133. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 316
134. ^ Michaels 2004, pp. 188–197
135. ^ Manu Smriti Laws of Manu 1.87-1.91
136. ^ This view is supported by records of sages who became Brahmins. For example, the sage Vishvāmitra was a king of the Kṣhatriya caste, and only later became recognized as a great Brahmin sage, indicating that his caste was not determined by birth. Similarly, Vālmiki, once a low-caste robber, became a sage.
137. ^ Silverberg 1969, pp. 442–443
138. ^ Smelser & Lipset 2005
139. ^ Elenanor Zelliot, "Caste in Contemporary India", in Rinehart 2004
140. ^ Nikhilananda 1992, p. 155
141. ^ Monier-Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India (New Delhi, 1974 edition)
142. ^ Radhakrishnan, S (1929), Indian Philosophy, Volume 1, Muirhead library of philosophy (2nd ed.), London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., pp. 148
143. ^ For ahiṃsā as one of the "emerging ethical and religious issues" in the Mahābhārata see: Brockington, John, "The Sanskrit Epics", in Flood (2003), p. 125.
144. ^ For text of Y.S. 2.29 and translation of yama as "vow of self-restraint", see: Taimni, I. K. (1961), The Science of Yoga, Adyar, India: The Theosophical Publishing House, ISBN 81-7059-212-7 , p. 206.
145. ^ Michael Keene (2002), Religion in Life and Society, Folens Limited, p. 122, http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4AVbUIIygQC&pg=PA122, retrieved May 18, 2009
146. ^ Surveys studying food habits of Indians include: "Diary and poultry sector growth in India", "Indian consumer patterns" and "Agri reform in India". Results indicate that Indians who eat meat do so infrequently with less than 30% consuming non-vegetarian foods regularly, although the reasons may be economical.
147. ^ Fox, Michael Allen (1999), Deep Vegetarianism, Temple University Press, ISBN 1-566397-05-7
148. ^ Yadav, Y.; Kumar, S (August 14, 2006). "The food habits of a nation". The Hindu. http://www.thehindu.com/2006/08/14/stories/2006081403771200.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-17.
149. ^ See, Basak, R., "The Hindu concept of the natural world" in Morgan 1987, pp. 111–112; see also Doshi, Malvi (2002), Cooking Along the Ganges: The Vegetarian Heritage of India, Writer's Showcase Press, ISBN 059524422X p. 2.
150. ^ Walker 1968:257
151. ^ Richman 1988:272
152. ^ Krishnakumar, R. (August 30-September 12, 2003). "Beef without borders". Frontline (Narasimhan Ram). http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2018/stories/20030912004703100.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-07.
153. ^ Geoffray, Davis; Peter Marsden, Benedicte Ledent, Marc Delrez (2005), Towards a Transcultural Future: Literature and society in a post-colonial world, Rodopi, pp. 106, ISBN 9042017368, http://books.google.com/?id=_0QNztm0EHYC&pg=PA106
154. ^ Ketkar, Shridhar (1909), The History of Caste in India, Taylor & Carpenter, pp. 87–89, http://books.google.com/?id=_c9OAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA89
155. ^ Omar, Rashid (August 2006) (PDF), The Right to Religious Conversion: Between Apostasy and Proselytization, Kroc Institute, University of Notre Dame, pp. 3, http://kroc.nd.edu/ocpapers/op_27_1.pdf
156. ^ Reuter, Thomas (September 2004), Java's Hinduism Revivial, Hinduism Today, http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/2004/10-12/52-53_revivial.shtml
157. ^ Tamil Nadu: Dalit Christians embrace Hinduism Indian Express - August 10, 2009
158. ^ ^{a b} Catharine Cookson (2003), Encyclopedia of religious freedom, Taylor & Francis, p. 180, ISBN 9780415941815, http://books.google.com/?id=R0PrjC1Ar7gC&pg=PA180&dq=seek
159. ^ J. N. Nanda (1991), Conflicts and co-existence, India, Concept Publishing Company, p. 93, ISBN 9788170223023, http://books.google.com/?id=U-vX_LbZOVkC&pg=PA93&dq=seek
160. ^ William Stoddart (1993), Outline of Hinduism, Foundation for Traditional Studies, p. 13, ISBN 9780962998416, http://books.google.com/?id=wjR9AAAAMAAJ&q=seek
161. ^ Jeffery D. Long (2007), A vision for Hinduism: beyond Hindu nationalism, I.B.Tauris, p. 188, ISBN 9781845112738, http://books.google.com/?id=frXUGoWuK4wC&pg=PA188&dq=seek
162. ^ See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism pp. 189-92 (Viveka Press 1994) ISBN 1-884852-02-5
163. ^ Omar, Rashid (August 2006) (PDF), The Right to Religious Conversion: Between Apostasy and Proselytization, Kroc Institute, University of Notre Dame, pp. 4, http://kroc.nd.edu/ocpapers/op_27_1.pdf

References

• Banerji, S. C. (1992), Tantra in Bengal (Second Revised and Enlarged ed.), Delhi: Manohar, ISBN 81-85425-63-9
• Basham, A.L (1999), A Cultural History of India, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-563921-9
• Bhaktivedanta, A. C. (1997), Bhagavad-Gita As It Is, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, ISBN 089213285X, http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/, retrieved 2007-07-14
• Bhaskarananda, Swami (1994), The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion, Seattle, WA: Viveka Press, ISBN 1-884852-02-5 ^{[unreliable source?]}
• Bhattacharyya, N.N (1999), History of the Tantric Religion (Second Revised ed.), Delhi: Manohar Publications, ISBN 81-7304-025-7
• Chidbhavananda, Swami (1997), The Bhagavad Gita, Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam
• Eliot, Sir Charles (2003), Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch, I (Reprint ed.), Munshiram Manoharlal, ISBN 8121510937
• Fuller, C. J. (2004), The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ISBN 9780691120485
• Growse, Frederic Salmon (1996), Mathura - A District Memoir (Reprint ed.), Asian Educational Services
• Garces-Foley, Katherine (2005), Death and religion in a changing world, M. E. Sharpe
• Guénon, René (1921), Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8
• Guénon, René, Studies in Hinduism (1966 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-69-3
• Guénon, René, Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta (1925 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-62-4
• Hoiberg, Dale (2001), Students' Britannica India, Popular Prakashan, ISBN 0852297602
• Kuruvachira, Jose (2006), Hindu nationalists of modern India, Rawat Publications, ISBN 8170339952
• Monier-Williams, Monier (2001), English Sanskrit dictionary, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 8120615093, http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/index.html, retrieved 2007-07-24
• Morgan, Kenneth W.; Sarma, D. S. (1953), The Religion of the Hindus, Ronald Press
• Nikhilananda, Swami (1990), The Upanishads: Katha, Iśa, Kena, and Mundaka, I (5th ed.), New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, ISBN 0-911206-15-9
• Nikhilananda, Swami (trans.) (1992), The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna (8th ed.), New York: Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center, ISBN 0-911206-01-9
• Oberlies, T (1999), Die Religion des Rgveda, Vienna: Institut für Indologie der Universität Wien, ISBN 3900271321
• Osborne, E (2005), Accessing R.E. Founders & Leaders, Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikhism Teacher's Book Mainstream, Folens Limited
• Radhakrishnan, S; Moore, CA (1967), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01958-4
• Radhakrishnan, S (Trans.) (1995), Bhagvada Gita, Harper Collins, ISBN 1-855384-57-4
• Radhakrishnan, S (1996), Indian Philosophy, 1, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195638204
• Richman, Paula (1988), Women, branch stories, and religious rhetoric in a Tamil Buddhist text, Buffalo, NY: Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University, ISBN 0915984903
• Sargeant, Winthrop; Chapple, Christopher (1984), The Bhagavad Gita, New York: State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-87395-831-4
• Sen Gupta, Anima (1986), The Evolution of the Sāṃkhya School of Thought, South Asia Books, ISBN 8121500192
• Silverberg, James (1969), "Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium", The American Journal of Sociology 75 (3): 442–443
• Smelser, N.; Lipset, S., eds. (2005), Social Structure and Mobility in Economic Development, Aldine Transaction, ISBN 0202307999
• Smith, Huston (1991), The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions, San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, ISBN 0062507990
• Vasu, Srisa Chandra (1919), The Catechism Of Hindu Dharma, New York: Kessinger Publishing, LLC
• Vivekananda, Swami (1987), Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, ISBN 81-85301-75-1
• Walker, Benjamin (1968), The Hindu world: an encyclopedic survey of Hinduism, Praeger

Further reading

• Bowes, Pratima (1976), The Hindu Religious Tradition: A Philosophical Approach, Allied Pub, ISBN 0710086687
• Flood, Gavin (Ed) (2003), Blackwell companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-21535-2
• Klostermaier, K (1994), A Survey of Hinduism (3rd (2007) ed.), State University of New York Press;, ISBN 0791470822, http://www.oneworld-publications.com/books/texts/hinduism-a-short-history-ch1.htm
• Lipner, Julius (1998), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, ISBN 0415051819, http://www.google.co.in/books?id=HDMLYkIOoWYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=sindhu+hindu&as_brr=3, retrieved 2007-07-12
• Michaels, A (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present (5th ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-08953-1
• Monier-Williams, Monier (1974), Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus, Elibron Classics, Adamant Media Corporation, ISBN 1421265311, http://books.google.com/?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C&dq=isbn:1421265311, retrieved 2007-07-08
• Morgan, Kenneth W., ed. (1987), The Religion of the Hindus (New ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, ISBN 8120803876
• Renou, Louis (1964), The Nature of Hinduism, Walker
• Rinehart, R (Ed.) (2004), Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice, ABC-Clio, ISBN 1-57607-905-8
• Weightman, Simon (1998), "Hinduism", in Hinnells, John (Ed.), The new Penguin handbook of living religions, Penguin books, ISBN 0-140-51480-5
• Werner, Karel (1994), "Hinduism", in Hinnells, John (Ed.), A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, ISBN 0-7007-0279-2

External links

Find more about Hinduism on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions from Wiktionary
	Textbooks from Wikibooks
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Images and media from Commons
	News stories from Wikinews
	Learning resources from Wikiversity

Listen to this article (4 parts) · (info) Part 1 • Part 2 • Part 3 • Part 4 This audio file was created from a revision of Hinduism dated 2006-03-03, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help) More spoken articles

• Resources for Scholars and Students
• All About Hinduism by Swami Sivananda (pdf)
• Heart of Hinduism: An overview of Hindu traditions
• Information on Hinduism or Santana dharma
• Ethical Democracy Journal - Notes on Hinduism
• Religious Tolerance page on Hinduism

Audio

• Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda - Presented at World Parliament of Religion in 1893 (Text + Audio Version)
• Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies Lectures and seminars in MP3 audio format by the OCHS as reference material for scholars and students.

Religion topics Major groups Abrahamic Bahá'í Faith · Christianity · Druze · Islam · Judaism · Rastafari · Samaritanism Indian Ayyavazhi · Buddhism · Hinduism · Jainism · Sikhism Iranian Ahl-e Haqq · Manichaeism · Mazdak · Yazidi · Zoroastrianism East Asian Confucianism · Taoism Recent Cao Dai · Cheondoism · Discordianism · I-Kuan Tao · Neopaganism · New Age · Seicho-No-Ie · Tenrikyo · Unitarian Universalism Folk African · Afro-American · Indigenous Australian · Chinese · Javanese · Malagasy · Native American · Philippine · Polynesian · Shinto · Vodou Ancient religions Prehistoric Paleolithic Near East Egyptian · Semitic · Mesopotamian Indo-European Celtic · Germanic · Illyro-thracian · Greek (Gnosticism · Neoplatonism) · Hanifism · Mithraism · Roman · Slavic · Vedic Hinduism Theism Animism · Deism · Monotheism · Panentheism · Pantheism · Nontheism · Polytheism · Transtheism Religious studies Anthropology · Comparison · Development · History · Origin · Philosophy · Psychology · Sociology · Theology · Theories · Timeline Religion and society Demographics · Abrahamic prophets table · Education · Clergy (Monasticism · Ordination) · Fanaticism · Fundamentalism · Growth · Minorities · National church · Neo-Fascism · Conversion (Proselytism · Evangelism · Missionary) · Religious freedom (Toleration · Pluralism · Syncretism · Universalism) · Religion and politics · Religion and homosexuality · Religion and science · Schism · State religion · Theocracy · Violence (persecution · terrorism · war) Secularism and non-religion Atheism · Criticism of religion · Deconstruction · Irreligion · Secular theology · Secularization · Separation of church and state Lists Topics (basic topics) · Religions and Spiritual Traditions · Deities · Deification · Founders · Mass gatherings · New religious movements · Scholars · Organizations Religion portal

Categories: Hinduism | Bali Sacrifice

 

Home: Category:Hinduism: Encyclopedia