Meditation is a holistic Holism is the idea that all the properties of a given system (physical, biological, chemical, social, economic, mental, linguistic, etc.) cannot be determined or explained by its component parts alone. Instead, the system as a whole determines in an important way how the parts behave discipline during which time the practitioner trains his or her mind Mind is the aspect of intellect and consciousness experienced as combinations of thought, perception, memory, emotion, will and imagination, including all unconscious cognitive processes. The term is often used to refer, by implication, to the thought processes of reason. Mind manifests itself subjectively as a stream of consciousness in order to realize some benefit.^[1]

Meditation is generally a subjective, personal experience and most often done without any external involvement, except perhaps prayer beads Prayer beads or Rosaries are used by members of various religions such as Roman Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Bahá'í Faith to count the repetitions of prayers, chants or devotions. They may also be used for meditation, protection from negative energy, or for relaxation to count prayers. Meditation oftentimes involves invoking and cultivating a feeling or internal state, such as compassion Mettā or maitrī (Sanskrit) is loving-kindness, friendliness, benevolence, amity, friendship, good will, kindness, love, sympathy, and active interest in others. It is one of the ten pāramīs of the Theravāda school of Buddhism, and the first of the four sublime states (Brahmavihāras). The cultivation of loving-kindness (mettā bhāvanā) is a, or attending to some focal point Ānāpānasati , meaning 'mindfulness of breathing' ("sati" means mindfulness; "ānāpāna" refers to inhalation and exhalation), is a fundamental form of meditation taught by the Buddha. According to this teaching, classically presented in the Ānāpānasati Sutta, practicing this form of meditation as a part of the Noble, etc. The term can refer to the process of reaching this state, as well as to the state itself.^[2]

There are hundreds of specific types of meditation.^[3] The word, 'meditation,' means many things dependent upon the context of its use. People practice meditation for many reasons within the context of their culture. Meditation is a component of many religions, and has been practiced since antiquity, especially by monastics.

Contents 1 Etymology and history 2 Modern definitions and Western models 2.1 Definitions and scope 2.2 Similarities among disciplines 3 In spirituality and religion 3.1 Bahá'í Faith 3.2 Buddhism 3.3 Christianity 3.3.1 Catholic use of non-Christian methods 3.4 Hinduism 3.5 Islam 3.6 Jainism 3.7 Judaism 3.8 New Age 3.9 Sikhism 3.10 Taoism 3.11 Other 3.11.1 According to Jiddu Krishnamurti 3.11.2 Using beads 4 Modern cross-cultural dissemination 5 Secular practices 6 In a Western context 7 Physical postures 7.1 Postures with legs uncrossed 7.2 Cross-legged postures 7.3 Hand gestures and position 7.4 Eye focus and gaze 7.5 Chanting 8 Health applications and clinical studies 9 In popular culture 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

Etymology and history

Main article: History of meditation Caravans on the Silk Road The Silk Road (or Silk Routes) is an extensive interconnected network of trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean world, as well as North and Northeast Africa and Europe. The Silk Road gets its name from the lucrative Chinese silk trade, a major reason for the connection of trade helped spread meditative practices from India.

The word meditate comes from the Latin extinct: Anatolian · Paleo-Balkans (Dacian, root meditatum, i.e. to ponder.^[4] In the Old Testament The Old Testament is the collection of books that forms the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. The contents of the Old Testament canon vary from church to church, with the Orthodox communion having 51 books: the shared books are those of the shortest canon, that of the major Protestant communions, with 39 books hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה‎), means to sigh or murmur, but also to meditate. When the Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible is a term referring to the books of the Jewish Bible (Tanakh) as originally written mostly in Biblical Hebrew, with some Biblical Aramaic. It is also called the Hebrew Scriptures. The term closely corresponds to contents of the Jewish Tanakh and the Protestant Old Testament (see also Judeo-Christian) and does not include the was translated into Greek, hāgâ became the Greek melete. The Latin Bible then translated hāgâ/melete into meditatio.^[5] The use of the term meditatio as part of a formal, stepwise process of meditation goes back to the 12th century monk Guigo II.^[6]

Apart from its historical usage, the term meditation was introduced as a translation for Eastern spiritual practices, generally referred to as dhyāna Dhyāna in Sanskrit or jhāna (झन) in Pāli can refer to either meditation or meditative states. Equivalent terms are "Chán" in modern Chinese, "Zen" in Japanese, "Seon" in Korean, "Thien" in Vietnamese, and "Samten" in Tibetan, which comes from the Sanskrit root dhyai, meaning to contemplate or meditate.^[2][7] The term "meditation" in English may also refer to practices from Islamic Sufism Sufism or taṣawwuf is, according to its adherents, the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a ṣūfī (صُوفِيّ). Another name for a Sufi is Dervish,^[8] or other traditions such as Jewish Kabbalah Kabbalah is a discipline and school of thought concerned with the mystical aspect of Rabbinic Judaism. It is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an eternal and mysterious Creator and the mortal and finite universe (His creation). While it is heavily used by some denominations, it is not a denomination in and of and Christian Hesychasm Hesychasm is an eremitic tradition of prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church, and some other Eastern Catholic Churches, such as the Byzantine Rite, practised (Gk: ἡσυχάζω, hesychazo: "to keep stillness") by the Hesychast (Gr. Ἡσυχαστής, hesychastes).^[9] A recent edited book about "meditation", for example, included chapter contributions by authors describing Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Islamic, and Taoist traditions.^[10][11] Scholars have noted that "the term 'meditation' as it has entered contemporary usage" is parallel to the term "contemplation" in Christianity.^[12]

It is difficult to trace the history of meditation without considering the religious context within which it was practiced.^[13] Data suggest that even at prehistoric times older civilizations used repetitive, rhythmic chants and offerings to appease the gods.^[14] Some authors have even suggested the hypothesis that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element of many methods of meditation,^[15] may have contributed to the final phases of human biological evolution.^[16] References to meditation with Rishabha In Jainism, Rishabh Dev or Adinatha (आदिनाथ) (other names used: Riṣhabh, Riṣhabhanāth, Rushabh, Rushabhdev, Adinath or Adishwar or Kesariyaji; Sanskrit ṛṣabha meaning "best, most excellent") was the first of the 24 Tirthankara. He belonged to the House of Ikshwaku, which was also known as the "House of the Sun& in Jainism Jainism is an ancient religion of India that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to progress the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called Jina ( go back to the prehistoric age with the Acaranga Sutra The Acaranga Sutra is the first of the eleven Angas, part of the agamas (religious texts)which were compiled based on the teachings of Lord Mahavira dating to 500 BC.^[17][18]. Some of the earliest written records of meditation date to 1500BC in Hindu A Hindu ( pronunciation , Devanagari: हिन्दु) is an adherent of Hinduism, a set of religious, philosophical and cultural systems that originated in the Indian subcontinent. The vast body of Hindu scriptures, divided into Śruti ("revealed") and Smriti ("remembered"), lay the foundation of Hindu beliefs, which Vedantism Advaita Vedanta is a sub-school of the Vedānta (literally, end or the goal of the Vedas, Sanskrit) school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and Viśishṭādvaita. Advaita (literally, non-duality) is a monistic system of thought. "Advaita" refers to the identity of the Self (Atman) and the Whole (. Around 500-600BC Taoists Taoism refers to a variety of related philosophical and religious traditions that have influenced Eastern Asia for more than two millennia, and have had a notable influence on the western world particularly since the 19th century. The word 道, Tao (or Dao, depending on the romanization scheme), roughly translates as, "path" or "way& in China and Buddhists Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by adherents as an in India began to develop meditative practices.^[13]

The Pāli Canon The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pali language. It is the only completely surviving early Buddhist canon, and one of the first to be written down. It was composed in North India, and preserved orally until it was committed to writing during the Fourth Buddhist Council, which dates to 1st century BCE considers Indian Buddhist Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by adherents as an meditation as a step towards salvation.^[19] By the time Buddhism was spreading in China, the Vimalakirti Sutra which dates to 100CE included a number of passages on meditation, clearly pointing to Zen Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The Japanese word Zen is derived from the Chinese word Chán, which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which means "meditation" or "meditative state.".^[20] The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China started in the 3rd century BCE during the reign of the first emperor of China, Qin Shihuang. The first documented translation efforts by Buddhist monks were in the 2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin introduced meditation to other oriental countries, and in 653 the first meditation hall was opened in Japan,.^[21] Returning from China around 1227, Dōgen wrote the instructions for Zazen Zazen is at the heart of Zen Buddhist practice. The aim of zazen is just sitting, "opening the hand of thought".[clarification needed] This is done either through koans, Rinzai's primary method, or whole-hearted sitting (shikantaza), the Soto sect's method. (Rinzai and Soto are the main extant Zen schools in Japan; they both originated.^[22][23]

The Islamic Islam (Arabic: الإسلام‎ al-’islām, pronounced [ʔislæːm] [note 1]) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of their one, incomparable God (Arabic: الله‎, Allāh), and by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad's teachings and normative example (in Arabic called practice of Dhikr Dhikr Arabic: ذکر‎, plural اذكار adhakār), is an Islamic devotional act, typically involving the repetition of the names of God, supplications or formulas taken from hadith texts and verses of the Qur'an. Dhikr is usually done individually, but in some Sufi orders it is instituted as a ceremonial activity. At the same time, dhikr had involved the repetition of the 99 Names of God in the Qur'an The 99 Names of Allah, also known as The 99 Most Beautiful Names of God , are the names of God (specifically, attributes) by which Muslims regard God and which are traditionally maintained as described in the Qur'ān, and Sunnah, amongst other places. There is, according to hadith, a special group of 99 names but no enumeration of them. Thus the since the 8th or 9th century.^[24][25] By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.^[26] Interactions with Indians or the Sufis Sufism or taṣawwuf is, according to its adherents, the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a ṣūfī (صُوفِيّ), though some adherents of the tradition reserve this term only for those practitioners who have attained the goals of the Sufi tradition. Another name used for the Sufi may have influenced the Eastern Christian Eastern Christianity refers collectively to the Christian traditions and churches which developed in the Balkans, Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, the Middle East, Northeastern Africa and southern India over several centuries of religious antiquity. The term is generally used in Western Christianity to describe all Christian traditions which did not meditation approach to hesychasm Hesychasm is an eremitic tradition of prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church, and some other Eastern Catholic Churches, such as the Byzantine Rite, practised (Gk: ἡσυχάζω, hesychazo: "to keep stillness") by the Hesychast (Gr. Ἡσυχαστής, hesychastes), but this can not be proved.^[27][28] Between the 10th and 14th centuries, hesychasm Hesychasm is an eremitic tradition of prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church, and some other Eastern Catholic Churches, such as the Byzantine Rite, practised (Gk: ἡσυχάζω, hesychazo: "to keep stillness") by the Hesychast (Gr. Ἡσυχαστής, hesychastes) was developed, particularly on Mount Athos Mount Athos is a mountain on the peninsula of the same name in Macedonia, of northern Greece, called in Greek Agion Oros (Άγιον Όρος, transliterated often as Hagion Oros), or in English, "Holy Mountain". In Classical times, the peninsula was called Akté (Ακτή) (sometimes Acte or Akte). Politically it is known in Greece as in Greece, and involves the repetition of the Jesus prayer The prayer has been widely taught and discussed throughout the history of the Eastern Churches. It is often repeated continually as a part of personal ascetic practice, its use being an integral part of the eremitic tradition of prayer known as Hesychasm . The prayer is particularly esteemed by the spiritual fathers of this tradition (see.^[29]

Western Christian meditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian meditation Christian meditation is a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of God. The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditari which means to concentrate. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts and reflecting on their progressed from the 6th century practice of Bible reading among Benedictine The Order of Saint Benedict is a Roman Catholic religious order of independent monastic communities that observe the Rule of St. Benedict. Within the order, each individual community (which may be a monastery, a priory or abbey) maintains its own autonomy, while the organization as a whole exists to represent their mutual interests. Today the monks called Lectio Divina Lectio Divina is Latin for divine reading, spiritual reading, or "holy reading," and represents a traditional Christian practice of prayer and scriptural reading intended to engender communion with the Triune God and to increase in the knowledge of God's Word. It is a way of praying with Scripture that calls one to study, ponder, listen, i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a "ladder" were defined by the monk Guigo II in the 12th century with the Latin terms lectio, meditatio, oratio, and contemplatio (i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian meditation Christian meditation is a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of God. The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditari which means to concentrate. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts and reflecting on their was further developed by saints such as Ignatius of Loyola Saint Ignatius of Loyola , (1491 – July 31, 1556) was a Spanish knight from a Basque noble family, hermit, priest since 1537, and theologian, who founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and became its first Superior General. The Jesuits emerged during the Counter-Reformation in reaction of the Catholic Church against the theology of Protestantism and Teresa of Avila Saint Theresa of Ávila, also called Saint Theresa of Jesus, baptized as Teresa Sánchez de Cepeda y Ahumada, (March 28, 1515, at Gotarrendura , Old Castile, Spain – October 4, 1582, at Alba de Tormes, Salamanca, Spain) was a prominent Spanish mystic, Carmelite nun, and writer of the Counter Reformation. She was a reformer of the Carmelite Order in the 16th century.^{[30][31][32][33]}

By the 18th century, the study of Buddhism in the West Buddhism in the West broadly encompasses the knowledge and practice of Buddhism outside of Asia. Occasional intersections between Western civilization and the Buddhist world have been occurring for thousands of years, but it was not until the era of European colonization of Buddhist countries in Asia during the 19th century that detailed knowledge was a topic for intellectuals. The philosopher Schopenhauer Arthur Schopenhauer was a German philosopher known for his pessimism and philosophical clarity. At age 25, he published his doctoral dissertation, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, which examined the fundamental question of whether reason alone can unlock answers about the world discussed it^[34], and Voltaire François-Marie Arouet , better known by the pen name Voltaire (pronounced: [volˈtɛʁ]), was a French Enlightenment writer and philosopher famous for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion and free trade. Voltaire was a prolific writer and produced works in almost every literary form including plays, asked for toleration towards Buddhists.^[35] The first English translation of the Tibetan Book of the Dead was published in 1927.^[36]

Secular forms of meditation were introduced in India in the 1950s as a Westernized form of Hindu meditative techniques and arrived in the United States and Europe in the 1960s. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self improvement.^[37][38] Both spiritual and secular forms of meditation have been subjects of scientific analyses. Research on meditation began in 1931, with scientific research increasing dramatically during the 1970s and 1980s.^[39] Since the beginning of the '70s more than a thousand studies of meditation in English-language have been reported.^[39]However, after 60 years of scientific study, the exact mechanism at work in meditation remains unclear.^[40]

Modern definitions and Western models

Definitions and scope

Definitions or Characterizations of Meditation: Examples from Prominent Reviews*
Definition / Characterization	Review
•"[M]editation refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and awareness in order to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and thereby foster general mental well-being and development and/or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration"[41]:228-9	Walsh & Shapiro (2006)
•"[M]editation is used to describe practices that self-regulate the body and mind, thereby affecting mental events by engaging a specific attentional set.... regulation of attention is the central commonality across the many divergent methods"[42]:180	Cahn & Polich (2006)
•"We define meditation... as a stylized mental technique... repetitively practiced for the purpose of attaining a subjective experience that is frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness, often characterized as blissful"[43]:415	Jevning et al (1992)
•"the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in... every meditation system"[9]:107	Goleman (1988)
*Influential reviews (cited >50 times in PsycINFO[44]), encompassing multiple methods of meditation.

As early as 1971, Naranjo noted that "The word 'meditation' has been used to designate a variety of practices that differ enough from one another so that we may find trouble in defining what meditation is."^[45]:6 As of 2010, there remains no definition of necessary and sufficient criteria for meditation that has achieved universal or widespread acceptance within the modern scientific community, as one study recently noted a "persistent lack of consensus in the literature" and a "seeming intractability of defining meditation".^[46]:135

In popular usage, the word "meditation" and the phrase "meditative practice" are often used imprecisely to designate broadly similar practices, or sets of practices, that are found across many cultures and traditions.^[9][47]

Some of the difficulty in precisely defining meditation has been the need to recognize the particularities of the many various traditions.^[48] There may be differences between the theories of a certain tradition in what it means to practice some state, and so one may see that the differences amongst traditions that have grown up a great distance apart from each other will be even more stark.^[49] The defining of what is, 'meditation', has caused problems in modern scientific research, and appeals have been made that researchers more clearly define the type of meditation being practiced in order that results of their studies be made more clear.^[48]:499 Taylor^[50]:2 noted that to refer only to meditation from a particular faith (e.g., "Hindu" or "Buddhist")

is not enough, since the cultural traditions from which a particular kind of meditation comes are quite different and even within a single tradition differ in complex ways. The specific name of a school of thought or a teacher or the title of a specific text is often quite important for identifying a particular type of meditation.

Within a specific context, more precise meanings are not uncommonly given the word "meditation."^[51] For example, 'meditation', is sometimes the translation of meditation in Latin, which means the third, of four steps, of Lectio Divina Lectio Divina is Latin for divine reading, spiritual reading, or "holy reading," and represents a traditional Christian practice of prayer and scriptural reading intended to engender communion with the Triune God and to increase in the knowledge of God's Word. It is a way of praying with Scripture that calls one to study, ponder, listen, an ancient form of Christian prayer. 'Meditation' may also refer to the second of the three steps of Yoga Yoga refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India. The word is associated with meditative practices in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Within Hinduism, it also refers to one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy, and to the goal towards which that school directs its practices. In Jainism, yoga is in Patanjali Patañjali (fl. 150 BCE or 2nd c. BCE) is the compiler of the Yoga Sutras, an important collection of aphorisms on Yoga practice, and also the author of the Mahābhāṣya, a major commentary on Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi's Yoga Sutras The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a Hindu scripture and foundational text of Yoga. It forms part of the corpus of Sutra literature dating to India's Mauryan period, a step called dhyāna in Sanskrit.

Meditation may refer to a mental or spiritual state that may be attained by such practices,^[2] and may also refer to the practice of that state.

This article focuses on meditation in the broad sense of a type of discipline, found in various forms in many cultures, by which the practitioner attempts to get beyond the reflexive, "thinking" mind into a deeper, more devout, or more relaxed state. The terms "meditative practice" and "meditation" are mostly used here in this broad sense. However, usage may vary somewhat by context - readers should be aware that in quotations, or in discussions of particular traditions, more specialized meanings of "meditation" may sometimes be used (with meanings made clear by context whenever possible).

Similarities among disciplines

Ornstein noted that "most techniques of meditation do not exist as solitary practices but are only artificially separable from an entire system of practice and belief".^[52]:143

Bodhidharma Bodhidharma was a Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th/6th century and is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Zen to China practicing zazen Zazen is at the heart of Zen Buddhist practice. The aim of zazen is just sitting, "opening the hand of thought".[clarification needed] This is done either through koans, Rinzai's primary method, or whole-hearted sitting (shikantaza), the Soto sect's method. (Rinzai and Soto are the main extant Zen schools in Japan; they both originated.

Progress on the "intractable" problem of defining meditation was attempted by a recent study of views common to 7 experts trained in diverse but empirically highly studied (clinical or Eastern-derived) forms of meditation.^[53] The study identified "three main criteria... as essential to any meditation practice: the use of a defined technique, logic relaxation, and a self-induced state/mode. Other criteria deemed important [but not essential] involve a state of psychophysical relaxation, the use of a self-focus skill or anchor, the presence of a state of suspension of logical thought processes, a religious/spiritual/philosophical context, or a state of mental silence".^[46]:135 However, the study cautioned that "It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by 'family resemblances Family resemblance is a philosophical idea proposed by Ludwig Wittgenstein, with the most well known exposition being given in the posthumously published book Philosophical Investigations (1953) . The idea itself takes its name from Wittgenstein's metaphorical description of a type of relationship he argued was exhibited by language. Wittgenstein''... or by the related prototype model of concepts".^[46]:135[54]

In modern psychological research, meditation has been defined and characterized in a variety of ways; many of these emphasize the role of attention (see table at right).^{[41][42][43][9]}

Oftentimes, in the West, meditation is classified in two broad categories, so noted in the following excerpt,

direction of mental attention... A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-called concentrative mediation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-called mindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness.^[46]:130[55]

Other typologies have also been proposed,^{[56][57][additional citations useful]} and some techniques shift among major categories.^[58] Evidence from neuroimaging studies suggests that major categories of meditation, defined by how they direct attention, appear to generate different brainwave patterns.^{[56][57][additional citations useful]} Some evidence also suggests that using different focus objects may generate different brainwave patterns.^[59]

In Concentration meditation the meditator holds attention on a particular object (e.g., the breath at the point of one's own nose or a picture of one's Guru) while consistently bringing the mind back to concentrate on the chosen object. See also, anapanasati.

In Mindfulness meditation, the meditator sits comfortably and silently, centering attention by focusing awareness on an object or process. The meditator is usually encouraged to maintain an open focus or monitoring. An example of a more detailed description of the process of mindfulness meditation:

In mindfulness meditation, the subject sits comfortably, in silence, centering attention by focusing mental awareness an object or process (either the breathing process, a sound, a mantra koan or riddle evoking questions, a visualisation, or an exercise) and then consciously is encouraged to scan their thoughts in an open focus, shifting freely from one perception to the next (Kutz et al., 1985a, b). No thought, image or sensation is considered an intrusion. The meditator, with a `no effort’ attitude, is asked to remain in the here and now. Using the focus as an `anchor’ (Teasdale et al., 1995) brings the subject constantly back to the present, avoiding cognitive analysis or fantasy regarding the contents of awareness, and increasing tolerance and relaxation of secondary thought processes.^[58]:49

In spirituality and religion

There are literally hundreds of specific approaches to meditation.^[60] Some meditative traditions, such as yoga or tantra, are common to several religions.^[61]

Bahá'í Faith

The Bahá'í Faith teaches that meditation is necessary for spiritual growth, alongside obligatory prayer and fasting. `Abdu'l-Bahá is quoted as saying:

Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries to your mind. In that state man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves.^[62]

Although the founder of the Faith, Bahá'u'lláh, never specified any particular forms of meditation, some Bahá'í practices are meditative. One of these is the daily repetition of the Arabic phrase Alláhu Abhá (Arabic: الله ابهى‎) (God is Most Glorious) 95 times preceded by ablutions. Abhá has the same root as Bahá' (Arabic: بهاء "splendor" or "glory") which Bahá'ís consider to be the "Greatest Name of God".^[63]

Buddhism

Main article: Buddhist meditation

The historical Buddha himself, Siddhartha Gautama, was said to have achieved enlightenment while meditating under a Bodhi tree. The Buddha then returned to the world where he founded the monastic way of life and taught the dharma, or truth, in order to liberate all sentient beings. Monks live a life of poverty, chastity, prayer, and meditation. The daily routine of a monastery differs from place to place, as does the sort of meditation practiced there. There are literally hundreds of specific Buddhist meditative methods.^[64]

Buddhist meditation is, fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind, and using it to explore itself and other phenomena.^[65] Many Buddhists practice meditation as part of The Noble Eightfold Path in order to reach enlightenment, which means liberation from the bonds of delusion and suffering. Meditation is also practiced for health benefits, which have been observed using the scientific method.

Dynamic tranquility: the Buddha in contemplation.

Theravada Buddhism emphasizes the meditative development of mindfulness (sati) and concentration (samadhi).^[66] Today, Western psychologists have borrowed mindfulness concepts for therapeutic application. Traditional popular meditation subjects in Theravada include the breath (anapana) and loving-kindness (mettā).

Anapanasati, or watching the breath, has been practiced since the time of The Buddha. In this type of meditation one simply turns the attention to each breath. Sometimes the breaths are counted on the inhalation (or sometimes the exhalation is chosen as well), "1... 2... 3... 4...," up to ten and then the practitioner begins from 1 again. Sometimes the breaths are simply watched without counting. When the attention goes to something else it is gently brought back to the breath; If the count is lost then the practitioner simply starts from 1 again. This type of meditation has been shown to improve the ability to sustain one's attention to any stimuli as well as improving executive functioning and slow the natural aging process of the brain.

The non-dual mode of abiding is a consistent theme throughout Buddhism.^[67] There are eight stages of jnana, the last four of which are called the four, 'formless meditations'. Dzogchen, a way of practice and an internal state, has been described as the primordial non-dual state. In The Jewel Ornament of Liberation, Gampopa wrote of ten stages, or bhumis, which one passes through gradually on the way to enlightenment. Of the first stage it is written, "Generally, bodhisattvas of the ten bhumis have the same realization while in meditative absorption. If explained particularly, differences occur during in the post-meditative state. At the first bhumi, one realizes the meaning of entering into the all-pervading Dharmadatu. Through that, one achieves the sameness of oneself and others."^[68] Also see the following pages on Wikipedia: The Diamond Sutra, The Heart Sutra, Prajnaparamita, Śūnyatā, Anatta and Mindfulness (psychology).

Meditation in Tibetan Buddhism grew up as an integral part of religious life, alongside other practices like mantra recitation, study of sacred literature, hand mudras, prostrations, and so forth. All Tibetan schools share the preliminary practice of Ngondro. From there one begins either with Dzogchen in the Nyingma path or with Mahamudra in the Kagyu lineage. There is a fairly wide consensus among lamas of both the Nyingma and Sarma schools that the end state of dzogchen and mahamudra are the same,^[69] to awaken to the nature of mind - the primordial, pure, nondual state, the unchanging awareness which underlies the whole of life and death - and then to abide in this state until complete and precious Enlightenment is attained.^[70][71]

Also in Tibetan Buddhism there are other forms of meditation including mettā, or compassion meditation, where one generates a state of boundless compassion (recognized in science as self-induced high-amplitude gamma synchrony)^[72] and simultaneously increases the compassion one has for others, or, in other words, develops, "the mental expertise to cultivate positive emotion alters the activation of circuitries previously linked to empathy and theory of mind in response to emotional stimuli."^[73] Essentially compassion meditation makes one happier and more compassionate with others. There is also the practice of Tonglen where one takes on the suffering and stress of others while radiating happiness and success to others, and the practice of Tummo wherein monks learn to generate enough body heat so that others have seen these practitioners, fully submerged beneath icy lakes, cause steam to rise from the surface of the water.^[74]

In Japanese Mahayana schools, Tendai (Tien-tai), concentration is cultivated through highly structured ritual. Especially in the Chinese Chán Buddhism school (which branched out into the Japanese Zen, and Korean Seon schools), ts'o ch'an meditation and koan meditation practices allow a practitioner to directly experience the true nature of reality. The esoteric Shingon sect shares many features with Tibetan Buddhism.

The Japanese haiku poet Basho saw poetry as a process of meditation concerned with the art of describing the brief appearances of the everlasting self, of eternity, in the circumstances of the world. We get a sense of this ethical purpose in his writing at the commencement of his classic work Narrow Roads to the Deep North. In a more lonely and perhaps more profound pilgrimage than Chaucer depicted in the Canterbury Tales, Basho reflects on mortality in intermingled poetry and prose as he journeys north from shrine to shrine.^[75]

It has been argued that meditative traditions of Buddhism (which predated the recorded birth of Jesus by 500 years and were present in Asia Minor and Alexandria during Jesus' life), influenced the development of some aspects of Christian contemplative faith (Buddhism and Christianity).^[76]

A traditional Buddhist idea is the characterization of meditation as shamatha, which means calm abiding, and as vipassana, which means insight. One may emphasize one or the other at times, leading to their union and to eventual enlightenment. Also, these words have different meanings in different contexts.

The gift of learning to meditate is the greatest gift you can give yourself in this life. For it is only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature, and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live, and die, well. Meditation is the road to enlightenment. -Sogyal Rinpoche, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying^[70]

Christianity

Main article: Christian meditation A strong believer in Christian meditation, Saint Padre Pio stated: "Through the study of books one seeks God; by meditation one finds him".^[77]

Christian traditions have various meditative practices. These include Monastic traditions such as Lectio Divina, rosary meditations, and Eucharistic Adoration in Catholicism, or the Hesychast tradition in Eastern Orthodoxy which may involve recitation of the "Jesus Prayer".^[78]

Some Western Christian meditative practices, such as those derived from the 13^th century English text, The Cloud of Unknowing, rely upon the repetition of a single word or short phrase.^[79][80] In many methods of Christian contemplative practice, "meditation" is the middle level in a broad three stage characterization of prayer: it involves more reflection than first level vocal prayer, but is more structured than the multiple layers of contemplation in Christianity.^[81] Saints such as Thomas Aquinas and Teresa of Avila have emphasized the importance of meditation in Christianity.^[82][83][84]

Christians often pray to develop a closer relationship with God.^[85] In the Orthodox Catholic Church, meditation is done to reach union with God. The Desert Fathers played a major role in the development of Christian monasticism, wherein meditation has historically found a role.

Catholic use of non-Christian methods

Main articles: Aspects of Christian meditation and A Christian reflection on the New Age

In the 20^th century, Christian methods of meditation have been distinguished from and contrasted with so-called "cosmic styles" of Eastern meditation.^[86][87][88] A 1989 document generally known as Aspects of Christian meditation set forth the position of the Roman Catholic Holy See with respect to the differences between Christian and Eastern styles of meditation. The document, issued as a letter to all Roman Catholic Bishops, stresses the differences between Christian and Eastern meditative approaches. It warns of dangers in attempting to mix Christian meditation with Eastern approaches since that could be both confusing and misleading, and may result in the loss of the essential Christocentric nature of Christian meditation.^[89][90][91] The letter warned that euphoric states obtained through Eastern meditation should not be confused with prayer or assumed to be signs of the presence of God, and cautioned that meditation, which should be a flight from the self, should not degenerate into a form of self-absorption.^[92] In 2003, in a 9-page booklet A Christian reflection on the New Age the Vatican announced that the "Church avoids any concept that is close to those of the New Age".^[93][94][95]

Hinduism

A large statue in Bangalore depicting Lord Shiva meditating

The earliest clear references to meditation in Hindu literature are in the middle Upanishads and the Mahabharata, which includes the Bhagavad Gita.^[96][97] According to Gavin Flood, the earlier Brihadaranyaka Upanishad refers to meditation when it states that "having becoming calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (ātman) within oneself".^[98]

Raja Yoga (sometimes simply referred to as Yoga) is one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy, focusing on meditation. Dhyana, or meditation, is the seventh of eight limbs of the Raja Yoga path as expounded by Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras. Patanjali recommended "meditation with the Lord as the object" as a part of the spiritual practices (sadhana) that leads to samadhi, or blissful inner peace.^[99] The word 'Yoga' is derived from the Sanskrit yuj, which means "to control", "to yoke", "to unite", and refers to techniques and disciplines of asceticism and meditation which lead to spiritual experience. The practices of Yoga help one to control the mind and senses so the ego can be transcended and the true self (atman) experienced, leading to moksha or liberation. Meditation in Hinduism is not confined to any school or sect and has expanded beyond Hinduism to the West.^[98]

The different types of Yoga in Hinduism are designed to appeal to varieties of personality types, but to take the sincere practitioner to the same destinations in each case: first samadhi in which non-dual consciousness is experienced only in meditation and then samadhi where non-dual consciousness is experienced throughout waking activities.^[100]

The influential modern proponent of Hinduism who first introduced Eastern philosophy to the West in the late 19th century, Swami Vivekananda, describes meditation as follows:

Meditation has been laid stress upon by all religions. The meditative state of mind is declared by the Yogis to be the highest state in which the mind exists. When the mind is studying the external object, it gets identified with it, loses itself. To use the simile of the old Indian philosopher: the soul of man is like a piece of crystal, but it takes the colour of whatever is near it. Whatever the soul touches ... it has to take its colour. That is the difficulty. That constitutes the bondage.^[101]

See also: Dhyana in Hinduism

Islam

Main article: Muraqaba

A Muslim is obliged to pray at least five times a day: once before sunrise, at noon, in the afternoon, after sunset, and once at night. During prayer a Muslim focuses and meditates on God by reciting the Qur'an and engaging in dhikr to reaffirm and strengthen the bond between Creator and creation, with the purpose of guiding the soul to truth.^{[citation needed]} Such meditation is intended to help maintain a feeling of spiritual peace, in the face of whatever challenges work, social or family life may present.

The five daily acts of peaceful prayer are to serve as a template and inspiration for conduct during the rest of the day, transforming it, ideally, into one single and sustained meditation: even sleep is to be regarded as but another phase of that sustained meditation.^[102]

Meditative quiescence is said to have a quality of healing, and—in contemporary terminology—enhancing creativity.^[103] The Islamic prophet Muhammad spent sustained periods in contemplation and meditation. It was during one such period that Muhammad began to receive the revelations of the Qur'an.^[104][105]

Following are the styles, or schools, of meditation in the Muslim traditions:

• Tafakkur or tadabbur, literally means reflection upon the universe: this is considered to permit access to a form of cognitive and emotional development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the infinite. Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of one's submission to God.^[106]
• Meditation in the Sufi traditions is largely based on a spectrum of mystical exercises, varying from one lineage to another. Such techniques, particularly the more audacious, can be, and often have been down the ages, a source of controversy among scholars. One broad group of ulema, followers of the great Al-Ghazzali, for example, have in general been open to such techniques and forms of devotion, while another such group, those who concur with the Ibn Taymiya, reject and generally condemn such procedures as species of bid'ah (Arabic: بدعة) or mere innovation.

Numerous Sufi traditions place emphasis upon a meditative procedure similar in its cognitive aspect to one of the two principal approaches to be found in the Buddhist traditions: that of the concentration technique, involving high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, this is particularly evident, where muraqaba takes the form of tamarkoz, the latter being a Persian term that means concentration.

Jainism

Main article: Jain meditation Lord Mahaveer in meditative posture

Meditation has been one of the core spiritual practices undertaken by the Jains since the era of first Tirthankar Lord Rishabha.^[107] All the twenty four Tirthankars have practiced deep meditation before attaining enlightenment.^[108] They are all shown in meditative postures in the images or idols. Lord Mahaveer practiced deep meditation for twelve years and attained enlightenment.^[107] The Acaranga Sutra dating to 500 BC, addresses the meditation system of Jainism in detail^[109]. Jain Acharya Bhadrabahu of 4th century BC practiced deep Mahaprana meditation for 12 years^[110]. Acharya Kundakunda of 1st century BCE, opened new dimensions of meditation in Jain tradition through his books Samayasara, Pravachansar, etc^[111].

The Jains use the word Samayika, a word in the Prakrit language derived from the word samay (time), to denote the practice of meditation. The aim of Samayika is to transcend the daily experiences of being a "constantly changing" human being, Jiva, and allow for the identification with the "changeless" reality in the practitioner, the Atma. If the present moment of time is taken to be a point between the past and the future, Samayika means being fully aware, alert and conscious in that very moment, experiencing one's true nature, Atma, which is considered common to all living beings. To live in samayik is called living in the present. The Samayika takes on special significance during Paryushana, a special eight- or ten-day period (depending on the sect) practiced by the Jains. One of the main goal of Samayika is to inculcate the quality of equanimity. It encourages to be consistently spiritually vigilant. Samayaika is practiced in all the Jain sects and communities.

Contemplation is a very old and important meditation technique. The practitioner meditates deeply on subtle facts. In agnya vichāya, one contemplates on seven facts - life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of karmas, and the final accomplishment of liberation. In apaya vichāya, one contemplates on the incorrect insights one indulges into and that eventually develops right insight. In vipaka vichāya, one reflects on the eight causes or basic types of karma. In sansathan vichāya, when one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.^[112]

There exists a number of meditation techniques such as pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, savīrya-dhyāna, etc. In padāstha dhyāna one focuses on Mantras.^[112] A Mantra could be either a combinations of core letters or words on deity or themes. There is a rich tradition of Mantra in Jainism. All Jain followers irrespective of their sect, whether Digambara or Svetambara practice Mantra. Mantra chanting is an important part of daily lives of Jain monks and followers. Mantra chanting can be done either loudly or silently in mind.

Judaism

Main article: Jewish meditation

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There is evidence that Judaism has had meditative practices that go back thousands of years.^[113] For instance, in the Torah, the patriarch Isaac is described as going "לשוח" (lasuach) in the field—a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice (Genesis 24:63), probably prayer.

Similarly, there are indications throughout the Tanach (the Hebrew Bible) that meditation was central to the prophets.^[113] In the Old Testament, there are two Hebrew words for meditation: hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה‎), which means to sigh or murmur, but also to meditate, and sîḥâ (Hebrew: שיחה‎), which means to muse, or rehearse in one's mind.

The Jewish mystical tradition, Kabbalah, is inherently a meditative field of study. The Talmud refers to the advantage of the scholar over the prophet, as his understanding takes on intellectual, conceptual form, that deepens mental grasp, and can be communicated to others. The advantage of the prophet over the scholar is in the transcendence of their intuitive vision. The ideal illumination is achieved when the insights of mystical revelation are brought into conceptual structures. For example, Isaac Luria revealed new doctrines of Kabbalah in the 16th Century, that revolutionised and reordered its teachings into a new system. However, he did not write down his teachings, which were recounted and interpreted instead by his close circle of disciples. After a mystical encounter, called in Kabbalistic tradition an "elevation of the soul" into the spiritual realms, Isaac Luria said that it would take 70 years to explain all that he had experienced. As Kabbalah evolved its teachings took on successively greater conceptual form and philosophical system. Nonetheless, as is implied by the name of Kabbalah, which means "to receive", its exponents see that for the student to understand its teachings requires a spiritual intuitive reception that illuminates and personalises the intellectual structures.

Corresponding to the learning of Kabbalah are its traditional meditative practices, as for the Kabbalist, the ultimate purpose of its study is to understand and cleave to the Divine. Classic methods include the mental visualisation of the supernal realms the soul navigates through to achieve certain ends. One of the most well known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of the Merkabah, from the root /R-K-B/ meaning "chariot" (of God).

In modern Jewish practice one of the best known meditative practices is called "hitbodedut" (התבודדות, alternatively transliterated as "hisbodedus"), and is explained in Kabbalistic, Hasidic, and Mussar writings, especially the Hasidic method of Rabbi Nachman of Breslav. The word derives from the Hebrew word "boded" (בודד), meaning the state of being alone. Another Hasidic system is the Habad method of "hisbonenus", related to the Sephirah of "Binah", Hebrew for understanding. This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself understand a mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings.

New Age

Main article: New Age Meditation workshop at 1979 Nambassa in New Zealand

New Age meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, mysticism, Yoga, Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the youth of the day rebelled against traditional belief systems as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethical guidance.^[114] New Age meditation as practiced by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object.^[115] Many New Age groups combine yoga with meditation where the control of mind and breathing is said to be the highest yoga.^[116][117]

In Zen Yoga Aaron Hoopes talks of meditation as being an avenue to touching the spiritual nature that exists within each of us.

At its core, meditation is about touching the spiritual essence that exists within us all. Experiencing the joy of this essence has been called enlightenment, nirvana, or even rebirth, and reflects a deep understanding within us. The spiritual essence is not something that we create through meditation. It is already there, deep within, behind all the barriers, patiently waiting for us to recognize it. One does not have to be religious or even interested in religion to find value in it. Becoming more aware of your self and realizing your spiritual nature is something that transcends religion. Anyone who has explored meditation knows that it is simply a path that leads to a new, more expansive way of seeing the world around us.^[118]

Among the meditation techniques identified as "New Age" are Sahaja Yoga, Transcendental Meditation, Natural Stress Relief, 5Rhythms, Transmission Meditation, and Theta Healing.^[119]

Sikhism

Main article: Nām Japō

In Sikhism, the practices of simran and Nām Japō encourage quiet meditation. This is focusing one's attention on the attributes of God. Sikhs believe that there are 10 'gates' to the body; 'gates' is another word for 'chakras' or energy centres. The top most energy level is called the tenth gate or dasam dwar. When one reaches this stage through continuous practice meditation becomes a habit that continues whilst walking, talking, eating, awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavour when a meditator reaches this lofty stage of meditation, as one experiences absolute peace and tranquility inside and outside the body.

Followers of the Sikh religion also believe that love comes through meditation on the lord's name since meditation only conjures up positive emotions in oneself which are portrayed through our actions. The first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev Ji preached the equality of all humankind and stressed the importance of living a householder's life instead of wandering around jungles meditating, the latter of which being a popular practice at the time. The Guru preached that we can obtain liberation from life and death by living a totally normal family life and by spreading love amongst every human being regardless of religion.

In the Sikh religion, kirtan, otherwise known as singing the hymns of God is seen as one of the most beneficial ways of aiding meditation, and it too in some ways is believed to be a meditation of one kind.

Taoism

Main article: Taoism "Gathering the Light", Taoist meditation from The Secret of the Golden Flower

Taoism includes a number of meditative and contemplative traditions, said to have their principles described in the I Ching, Tao Te Ching, Chuang Tzu and Tao Tsang among other texts. The multitude of schools relating to Qigong, Neigong, Internal alchemy, Daoyin and Zhan zhuang is a large, diverse array of breath-training practices in aid of meditation with much influence on later Chinese Buddhism and with much influence on traditional Chinese medicine and the Chinese as well as some Japanese martial arts. The Chinese martial art T'ai Chi Ch'uan is named after the well-known focus for Taoist and Neo-Confucian meditation, the T'ai Chi T'u, and is often referred to as “meditation in motion”.

"The Guanzi essay 'Neiye' 內業 (Inward training) is the oldest received writing on the subject of the cultivation of vapor and meditation techniques. The essay was probably composed at the Jixia Academy in Qi in the late fourth century B.C."^[120]

Often Taoist Internal martial arts, especially Tai Chi Chuan are thought of as moving meditation. A common phrase being, "movement in stillness" referring to energetic movement in passive Qigong and seated Taoist meditation; with the converse being "stillness in movement", a state of mental calm and meditation in the tai chi form.

In a form of meditation using visualization, such as Chinese Qi Gong, the practitioner concentrates on flows of energy (Qi) in the body, starting in the abdomen and then circulating through the body, until dispersed.^[58]

Other

According to Jiddu Krishnamurti

Jiddu Krishnamurti used the term "meditation" to mean something entirely different from the practice of any system or method to control the mind, or to consciously achieve a specific goal or state: "Man, in order to escape his conflicts, has invented many forms of meditation. These have been based on desire, will, and the urge for achievement, and imply conflict and a struggle to arrive. This conscious, deliberate striving is always within the limits of a conditioned mind, and in this there is no freedom. All effort to meditate is the denial of meditation. Meditation is the ending of thought. It is only then that there is a different dimension which is beyond time."

For Krishnamurti, meditation was choiceless awareness in the present: "When you learn about yourself, watch yourself, watch the way you walk, how you eat, what you say, the gossip, the hate, the jealousy - if you are aware of all that in yourself, without any choice, that is part of meditation."^[121]

Two quotes taken from film footage of a talk given by Krishnamurti to children in 1984: "...Meditation means 'To be free of measurement' " and "...meditation can only take place when there is no effort, when there is no contradiction."^[122]

Using beads

Many religions have their own prayer beads. Most prayer beads and Christian rosaries consist of pearls or beads linked together by a thread. The Roman Catholic rosary is a string of beads containing five sets with ten small beads. Each set of ten is separated by another bead. The Hindu japa mala has 108 beads, as also in Jainism, as may the Buddhist juzu. The Muslim mishbaha has 99 beads. Prayers and specific meditations of each religion are different and there are theological reasons for the number of beads. Prayer beads may come in different colors, sizes and designs. However, the central purpose, which is to pray repetitively and to meditate, is the same across all religions that use them as a prayer tool.^{[citation needed]}

Modern cross-cultural dissemination

Methods of meditation have been cross-culturally disseminated at various times throughout history, such as Buddhism going to East Asia, and Sufi practices going to many Islamic societies. Of special relevance to the modern world is the dissemination of meditative practices since the late 1800s, accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of numerous Asian-derived practices to the West. Interest in some Western-based meditative practices has also been revived,^[123] and these have been disseminated to a limited extent in Asian countries.^[124]

Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity,"^[50]:3 and such ideas "came pouring in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s."^[50]:3 But

The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, Swami Vivekananda... [founded] various Vedanta ashrams... Anagarika Dharmapala lectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904; Abdul Baha ... [toured] the US teaching the Islamic principles of Bahai, and Soyen Shaku toured in 1907 teaching Zen...^[50]:4

More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. Observers have suggested many types of explanations for this interest in Eastern meditation (and revived Western contemplation). Thomas Keating, a founder of Contemplative Outreach, wrote that "the rush to the East is a symptom of what is lacking in the West. There is a deep spiritual hunger that is not being satisfied in the West."^[80]:31 Daniel Goleman, a scholar of meditation, suggested that the shift in interest from "established religions" to meditative practices "is caused by the scarcity of the personal experience of these [meditation-derived] transcendental states - the living spirit at the common core of all religions."^[9]:xxiv

Another suggested contributing factor is the rise of communist political power in Asia, which "set the stage for an influx of Asian spiritual teachers to the West"^[50]:7 (often as refugees).

Secular practices

A collective meditation in Sri Lanka

Forms of meditation which are devoid of religious content have been developed in the west as a way of promoting physical and mental well being, although they may also be used in a spiritual context:

There have been many therapeutic applications of the Buddhist concept of mindfulness in the context of Western medicine. They emphasize moment-to-moment awareness of one's thoughts and feelings without trying to fight or judge them.

Jacobson's Progressive Muscle Relaxation was developed by American physician Edmund Jacobson in the early 1920s. Jacobson argued that since muscular tension accompanies anxiety, one can reduce anxiety by learning how to relax the muscular tension.^{[citation needed]}

Herbert Benson of Harvard Medical School conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines including Transcendental Meditation and Tibetan Buddhism. In 1975, Benson published a book titled The Relaxation Response where he outlined his own version of meditation for relaxation.^{[citation needed]}

Autogenic training was developed by the German psychiatrist Johannes Schultz in 1932. Schultz emphasized parallels to techniques in yoga and meditation; however, autogenic training is devoid of any mysticism.^{[citation needed]}

Australian psychiatrist Dr Ainslie Meares published a groundbreaking^{[citation needed]} work in the 1960s entitled Relief Without Drugs, in which he recommended some simple, secular relaxation techniques based on Hindu practices as a means of combating anxiety, stress and chronic physical pain.^{[citation needed]}

In 1978, Clive Sherlock who developed Adaptation Practice while at Oxford first started teaching Buddhist Meditation in secular (non-Buddhist) language to deal with emotional problems such as depression, anxiety, anger and stress.^{[citation needed]}

The 1999 book The Calm Technique: Meditation Without Magic or Mysticism by Paul Wilson has a discussion and instruction in a form of secular meditation.^{[citation needed]}

Biofeedback has been tried by many researchers since the 1950s as a way to enter deeper states of mind.^[125]

Acem Meditation has been developed in the Scandinavian countries since 1966. It is non-religious technique with no requirement for change of lifestyle or adaption to any system of belief.^{[citation needed]}

Sound and light techniques of meditation are based on the results of studies with electroencephalography in long-term meditators. Studies have demonstrated the presence of a frequency-following response to auditory and visual stimuli. This EEG activity was termed "frequency-following response" because its period (cycles per second) corresponds to the fundamental frequency of the stimulus. Stated plainly, if the stimulus is 5 Hz, the resulting measured EEG will show a 5 Hz frequency-following response using appropriate time-domain averaging protocols.^[126][127] This is the justification behind such inventions as the Dreamachine and binaural beats. Binaural beats and other audio techniques form the basis of the techniques at The Monroe Institute.

In a Western context

Meditating in Madison Square Park, New York City

"Meditation" in its modern sense refers to Yogic meditation that originated in India. In the late nineteenth century, Theosophists adopted the word "meditation" to refer to various spiritual practices drawn from Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and other Indian religions. Thus the English word "meditation" does not exclusively translate to any single term or concept, and can be used to translate words such as the Sanskrit dhāraṇā, dhyana, samadhi and bhavana.^{[citation needed]}

Meditation may be for a religious purpose, but even before being brought to the West it was used in secular contexts, such as the martial arts. Beginning with the Theosophists, though, meditation has been employed in the West by a number of religious and spiritual movements, such as Yoga, New Age and the New Thought movement, as well as limited use in Christianity.^{[citation needed]}

Meditation techniques have also been used by Western theories of counseling and psychotherapy. Relaxation training works toward achieving mental and muscle relaxation to reduce daily stresses. Jacobson is credited with developing the initial progressive relaxation procedure. These techniques are used in conjunction with other behavioral techniques. Originally used with systematic desensitization, relaxation techniques are now used with other clinical problems. Meditation, hypnosis and biofeedback-induced relaxation are a few of the techniques used with relaxation training. One of the eight essential phases of EMDR (developed by Shapiro), bringing adequate closure to the end of each session, also entails the use of relaxation techniques, including meditation. Multimodal therapy, a technically eclectic approach to behavioral therapy, also employs the use of meditation as a technique used in individual therapy.^[128]

From the point of view of psychology and physiology, meditation can induce an altered state of consciousness.^[129] Such altered states of consciousness may correspond to altered neuro-physiologic states.^[130]

Physical postures

Main article: Asana Half-lotus position. Bas-relief in Sukhothai, Thailand depicting monks during walking meditation.

Various postures are taken up in meditation. Sitting, supine, and standing^[131] postures are used.

Most popular is the full-lotus posture, half-lotus posture, Burmese posture, or kneeling posture.

Meditation can also be practiced while walking, such as kinhin, or doing simple repetitive tasks, as in Zen samu, or work which encourages mindfulness.

Postures with legs uncrossed

In some traditions the practitioner may sit on a chair, flat-footed and without back support (as in New Thought); sit on a stool (as in Orthodox Christianity); or walk in mindfulness, also known as kinhin (as in Theravada and Zen Buddhism).

Those traditions related to kundalini yoga, take a less formal approach. While the basic practice in these traditions is also to sit still quietly in a traditional posture, they emphasize the possibility of kriyas - spontaneous yogic postures, changes in breathing patterns or emotional states, or perhaps repetitive physical movements such as swaying, etc., which may naturally arise as the practitioner sits in meditation, and which should not be resisted but rather allowed to express themselves to enhance the natural flow of energy through the body. This is said to help purify the nadis and ultimately deepen one's meditative practice.^[132]

Cross-legged postures

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Cross legged sitting helps create a stable base for meditation that offers the least discomfort and distraction for extended periods of meditation. Several different varieties of seated asanas are practiced depending on the culture - ranging from easy crossed legs, to siddhasana ("perfect pose"), or the half and full lotus postures. Sitting on the heels is also possible. Seated meditation cushions often help extend meditative time and serve to elevate the hips and spine into proper alignment. Sitting cross-legged (or upon one's knees) for extended periods when one is not sufficiently limber, can result in a range of ergonomic complaints called "meditator's knee".

Many meditative traditions teach that the spinal column should be kept "straight," that is, the individual should sit erect but relaxed, by balancing the torso such that the spinal column supports it with very little effort. Sitting on a cushion that elevates the pelvis as high as or higher than the knees and then slightly rolling the pelvis forward, or by other similar means, makes it possible to do this. The correct posture causes the chin to drop down to the neck to the point where the tongue is pressed against the teeth, the chest to lift and tilt backwards, the shoulders to sit further back, and the low back to curve forwards.

If done correctly, this posture is easy for some to maintain for long periods of time without discomfort, as muscular effort is used only keep the spine balanced, and not to support the weight of the torso. Often this posture is explained as a way of encouraging the circulation of what some call "spiritual energy," the "vital breath", the "life force" (Sanskrit prana, Chinese qi, Latin spiritus) or the Kundalini. It is said that one's meditation will not be as good if one's posture is not so good.^[133]

Hand gestures and position

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Various hand-gestures or mudras may be prescribed in meditation. These can carry theological meaning or according to Yogic philosophy can actually affect consciousness, mood and energy. For example, a common Buddhist hand-position is with the right hand resting atop the left (like the Buddha's begging bowl), with the thumbs touching. Each finger is associated with a different sensitivity, and the belief is that finger endings locked into mudras create subtle energy shifts due to the different circuit connections. Pressing on finger endings also stimulates brain sections relating to different qualities - which a practitioner may want to enhance through meditation to invoke specific affects or changes.

Eye focus and gaze

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In some schools such as Zen, the eyes are half-closed, half open and looking slightly downward. In others such as Brahma Kumaris, the eyes are kept fully open. Others may keep the eye-lids 1/10th or barely open depending on what drishti (eye focus in kundalini yoga - meaning "vision" or "insight" in Sanskrit) the meditation instructs. Different eye focus points have different effects, and points such as the 3rd eye, or gazing over the nose help to lock the brain into a point of stillness. Pictures of saints in meditation may reflect different eye postures, and different meditations may call for staring into a saint's eyes, a candle flame, or some other object of focus, which is known to some as trataka meditation.

In Sufism, meditation (muraqaba) with eyes closed is called Varood while having the eyes open is known as Shahood or Fa'tha.

Often such details are shared by more than one religion, even in cases where mutual influence seems unlikely. One example is "navel-gazing," which is apparently attested within Eastern Orthodoxy as well as Chinese qigong practice. Another is the practice of focusing on the breath, found in Orthodox Christianity, Sufism, and numerous Indic traditions.

Chanting

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be and removed. (June 2010)

Oftentimes people will recite words and sound as a part of a meditation and/or to help induce some subjective state. Mantras are sounds considered capable of creating transformation by those who recite them; mantras are common to several religious and meditative traditions. In Sikhism recitation and repetition of mantra and hymns or shabad, which describe the qualities of God, creates an experiential connection with Divinity. Bij (or "seed" in Gurmukhi) mantras are repeated constantly, deeply planted in the mind as constant reminders of Oneness. Buddhists regard the recitation of mantras as a means for cutting off previous negative karma, also see Buddhist chant. In yogic science, man-tra ("man" meaning mind, "tra" to cut) helps "yoke" the mind to a more conscious and harmonious vibration. Mantra can affect the mind through combination (mudra) of tongue and palate. The repetition of mantra can aid meditation, clear the subconscious of unhealthy attachments, provide anchored stability, counter information overload, and break accumulated mental patterns.

All the religions mentioned on this page use some form of song such as communal prayer, mantra recitation, or shabad; even the Christian Jesus Prayer is a form of chanting.^{[citation needed]}

Scenes of Inner Taksang, temple hall, built just above the cave where Padmasambhava was believed to have meditated

Health applications and clinical studies

Main article: Research on meditation

Over 1,000 publications on meditation have appeared to date. Many of the these early studies lack a theoretically unified perspective, oftentimes resulting in poor methodological quality.^[134]

A review of scientific studies identified relaxation, concentration, an altered state of awareness, a suspension of logical thought and the maintenance of a self-observing attitude as the behavioral components of meditation;^[58] it is accompanied by a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body that alter metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry.^[135] Meditation has been used in clinical settings as a method of stress and pain reduction. Meditation has also been studied specifically for its effects on stress.^[136][137]

In June, 2007 the United States National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine published an independent, peer-reviewed, meta-analysis of the state of meditation research. The result was mixed: some studies showed substantial, detectable, changes in the brain of people who meditated, while other studies were very poor in quality and could not be reliably depended upon. More rigor in future studies was called for.^[138]

In popular culture

Main article: Meditation in popular culture

Various forms of meditation have been described in popular culture sources. In particular, science fiction stories such as Frank Herbert's Dune, Star Trek, Artemis Fowl, Star Wars, Maskman, Lost Horizon by James Hilton, and Stargate SG-1 have featured characters who practice one form of meditation or another. Mediation also appears as the overt theme of novels such as Jack Kerouac's The Dharma Bums. Usually these practices are inspired by real-world meditation traditions, but sometimes they have very different methods and purposes.^{[citation needed]}

See also

Ascension (mystical) Enlightenment (spiritual) Foundation for International Spiritual Unfoldment Ishayas' Ascension

The Monroe Institute - audiotrack meditation Transcendental Meditation Vipassanā

References

Notes

1. ^ Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, here... http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/meditating the definition of meditation as an intransitive verb, the second one
2. ^ ^{a b c} Feuerstein, Georg. "Yoga and Meditation (Dhyana)." Moksha Journal. Issue 1. 2006. ISSN 1051-127X, OCLC 21878732
3. ^ talk at Mind and Life Dialogues, available here: http://www.youtube.com/user/gyalwarinpoche#p/p/B99CDF90B3832607/1/Til4yRoe6Cs
4. ^ An universal etymological English dictionary 1773, London, by Nathan Bailey ISBN 1002377870. Note: from the 1773 edition on Google books, not earlier editions.
5. ^ Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 ISBN 0809136600 page 88
6. ^ The Oblate Life by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 ISBN 0814631762 page 115
7. ^ The verb root "dhyai" is listed as referring to "contemplate, meditate on" and "dhyāna" is listed as referring to "meditation; religious contemplation" on page 134 of Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1929 (1971 reprint)). A practical Sanskrit dictionary with transliteration, accentuation and etymological analysis throughout. London: Oxford University Press.
8. ^ Mirahmadi, Sayyid Nurjan; Muhammad Nazim Adil al-Haqqani Naqshbandi, Muhammad Hisham Kabbani & Hedieh Mirahmadi (2005). The healing power of sufi meditation. Fenton, MI: Naqshbandi Haqqani Sufi Order of America. ISBN 1930409265. http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip057/2005001975.html.
9. ^ ^{a b c d e} Goleman, Daniel (1988). The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience. New York: Tarcher. ISBN 0-87477-833-6.
10. ^ Jonathan Shear, ed (2006). The experience of meditation: Experts introduce the major traditions. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. ISBN 9781557788573. http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip066/2005037743.html.
11. ^ Joel Stein (2003). "Just say Om". Time 162 (5): 48–56. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1005349,00.html. In the print edition (pp. 54-55), the "Through the Ages" box describes "Christian Meditation", "Cabalistic (Jewish) Meditation", "Muslim Meditation", and others.
12. ^ Jean L. Kristeller (2010). Ruth A. Baer & Kelly G. Wilson. ed. "Spiritual engagement as a mechanism of change in mindfulness- and acceptance-based therapies". Assessing mindfulness and acceptance processes in clients: Illuminating the theory and practice of change (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger): 152–184. http://books.google.com/books?id=8K41STQ06MMC&pg=PA162&dq=isbn:9781572246942+easwaran+passage&hl=en&ei=KKMfTPGhJ9D7nAfx1fTsDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=isbn%3A9781572246942%20easwaran%20passage&f=false. . Page 161 states "In Christianity, the term 'contemplation' is parallel to the term 'meditation' as it has entered contemporary usage"
13. ^ ^{a b} A clinical guide to the treatment of human stress response by George S. Everly, Jeffrey M. Lating 2002 ISBN 0306466201 page 199
14. ^ Joseph, M. 1998, The effect of strong religious beliefs on coping with stress Stress Medicine. Vol 14(4), Oct 1998, 219-224.
15. ^ Buddhist scholar B. Alan Wallace has argued that focused attention is a basis for the practice of mindfulness. He writes that "Truly effective meditation is impossible without focused attention... the cultivation of attentional stability has been a core element of the meditative traditions throughout the centuries" (p. xi) in Wallace, B. Alan (2006). The attention revolution: Unlocking the power of the focused mind. Boston: Wisdom. ISBN 0861712765. http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip065/2005037195.html.
16. ^ Matt J. Rossano (2007). "Did meditating make us human?". Cambridge Archaeological Journal (Cambridge University Press) 17 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1017/S0959774307000054. This paper draws on various lines of evidence to argue that "Campfire rituals of focused attention created Baldwinian selection for enhanced working memory among our Homo sapiens ancestors.... this emergence was [in part] caused by a fortuitous genetic mutation that enhanced working memory capacity [and] a Baldwinian process where genetic adaptation follows somatic adaptation was the mechanism for this emergence" (p. 47).
17. ^ P.C. Roychoudhury (1956) Jainism in Bihar, Patna p.7
18. ^ Ahimsa - The Science Of Peace: by Surendra Bothra 1987
19. ^ Zen Buddhism : a History: India and China by Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter 2005 ISBN 0941532895 pages 15
20. ^ Zen Buddhism : a History: India and China by Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter 2005 ISBN 0941532895 pages 50
21. ^ Zen Buddhism : a History: Japan by Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter 2005 ISBN 0941532909 page 5
22. ^ Soto Zen in Medieval Japan by William Bodiford 2008 ISBN 0824833031 page 39
23. ^ The Cambridge History of Japan: Medieval Japan by Kōzō Yamamura, John Whitney Hall 1990 ISBN 0521223547 646
24. ^ Prayer: a history by Philip Zaleski, Carol Zaleski 2005 ISBN 0618152881 page 147-149
25. ^ Global Encyclopaedia of Education by Rama Sankar Yadav & B.N. Mandal 2007 ISBN 9788182202276 page 63
26. ^ Spiritual Psychology by Akbar Husain 2006 ISBN 8182200954 page 109
27. ^ An introduction to the Christian Orthodox churches by John Binns 2002 ISBN 0521667380 page 128
28. ^ "Hesychasm". OrthodoxWiki. http://orthodoxwiki.org/Hesychasm. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
29. ^ "Mount Athos: History". Macedonian Heritage. http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
30. ^ Christian Spirituality: A Historical Sketch by George Lane 2005 ISBN 0829420819 page 20
31. ^ Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 ISBN 0809136600 page 38
32. ^ The Oblate Life by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 ISBN 0814631762 page 109
33. ^ After Augustine: the meditative reader and the text by Brian Stock 2001 ISBN 0812236025 page 105
34. ^ Abelson, Peter (April 1993) Schopenhauer and Buddhism. Philosophy East and West Volume 43, Number 2, pp. 255-278. University of Hawaii Press. Retrieved on: 12 April 2008.
35. ^ Enlightenment and reform in 18th-century Europe by Derek Edward Dawson Beales 2005 ISBN 1860649491 page 13
36. ^ Shakya, Tsering "Review of Prisoners of Shangri-la by Donald Lopez". online
37. ^ A clinical guide to the treatment of human stress response by George S. Everly, Jeffrey M. Lating 2002 ISBN 0306466201 page 200
38. ^ Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion by David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan 2009 ISBN page 559
39. ^ ^{a b} Chapter 1 of The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: Scientific Studies of Contemplative Experience: An Overview by Michael Murphyhttp://www.noetic.org/research/medbiblio/ch1.htm
40. ^ A clinical guide to the treatment of human stress response by George S. Everly, Jeffrey M. Lating 2002 ISBN 0306466201 pages 201-202
41. ^ ^{a b} Roger Walsh & Shauna L. Shapiro (2006). "The meeting of meditative disciplines and western psychology: A mutually enriching dialogue". American Psychologist (American Psychological Association) 61 (3): 227–239. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.3.227. ISSN 0003-066X. PMID 16594839.
42. ^ ^{a b} B. Rael Cahn & John Polich (2006). "Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies". Psychological Bulletin (American Psychological Association) 132 (2): 180–211. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180. ISSN 0033-2909. PMID 16536641.
43. ^ ^{a b} R. Jevning, R. K. Wallace & M. Beidebach (1992). "The physiology of meditation: A review: A wakeful hypometabolic integrated response". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 16 (3): 415–424. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(05)80210-6. PMID 1528528.
44. ^ Number of citations in PsycINFO: 69 for Walsh & Shapiro, 2006 (2 Jul 2010); 95 for Cahn & Polich, 2006 (2 Jul 2010); 57 for Jevning et al (1992) (3 Jul 2010); 103 for Goleman, 1988 (2 Jul 2010).
45. ^ Claudio Naranjo (1972, originally published 1971), in: Naranjo and Orenstein, On the Psychology of Meditation. New York: Viking.
46. ^ ^{a b c d} Kenneth Bond, Maria B. Ospina, Nicola Hooton, Liza Bialy, Donna M. Dryden, Nina Buscemi, David Shannahoff-Khalsa, Jeffrey Dusek & Linda E. Carlson (2009). "Defining a complex intervention: The development of demarcation criteria for "meditation"". Psychology of Religion and Spirituality (American Psychological Association) 1 (2): 129–137. doi:10.1037/a0015736. (a journal published by the American Psychological Association)
47. ^ Mary Carroll (2005). "Divine therapy: Teaching reflective and meditative practices". Teaching Theology and Religion (Wiley) 8 (4): 232–238. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9647.2005.00249.x. ISSN 1467-9647.
48. ^ ^{a b} Lutz, Dunne and Davidson, "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction" in The Cambridge handbook of consciousness by Philip David Zelazo, Morris Moscovitch, Evan Thompson, 2007 ISBN 0521857430 page 499-551 (proof copy) (NB: pagination of published was 499-551 proof was 497-550).
49. ^ John Dunne's speech @ http://ccare.stanford.edu/node/21
50. ^ ^{a b c d e} Eugene Taylor (1999). Michael Murphy, Steven Donovan & Eugene Taylor. ed. "Introduction". The physical and psychological effects of meditation: A review of contemporary research with a comprehensive bibliography 1931-1996 (Sausalito, CA: Institute of Noetic Sciences): 1–32. http://www.noetic.org/research/medbiblio/index.htm.
51. ^ Besides Lectio and Yoga, examples include Herbert Benson's (1975) Relaxation Response ISBN 0-380-00676-6, Jon Kabat-Zinn's (1990) Full Catastrophe Living ISBN 0385298978, and Eknath Easwaran's (1978) Passage Meditation ISBN 9781586380267
52. ^ Robert Ornstein (1972, originally published 1971), in: Naranjo and Orenstein, On the Psychology of Meditation. New York: Viking. LCCN 76149720
53. ^ "members were chosen on the basis of their publication record of research on the therapeutic use of meditation, their knowledge of and training in traditional or clinically developed meditation techniques, and their affiliation with universities and research centers.... Each member had specific expertise and training in at least one of the following meditation practices: kundalini yoga, Transcendental Meditation, relaxation response, mindfulness-based stress reduction, and vipassana meditation" (Bond, Ospina et al, 2009, p. 131); their views were combined using the "The Delphi technique... a method of eliciting and refining group judgments to address complex problems with a high level of uncertainty" (p. 131).
54. ^ The full quotation from Bond, Ospina et al (2009, p. 135) reads: "It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by 'family resemblances' (Wittgenstein, 1968) or by the related prototype model of concepts (Rosch, 1973; Rosch & Mervin, 1975)."
55. ^ The full quote from Bond, Ospina et al (2009, p. 130) reads: "The differences and similarities among these techniques is often explained in the Western meditation literature in terms of the direction of mental attention (Koshikawa & Ichii, 1996; Naranjo, 1971; Orenstein, 1971): A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-called concentrative mediation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-called mindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness (Orenstein, 1971)."
56. ^ ^{a b} Antoine Lutz, Heleen A. Slagter, John D. Dunne & Richard J. Davidson (2008). "Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 12 (4): 163–169. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005. PMID 18329323.
57. ^ ^{a b} Fred Travis & Jonathan Shear (2010). "Focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending: Categories to organize meditations from Vedic, Buddhist and Chinese traditions". Consciousness and Cognition: eprint in final form but prior to page assignment, accessed 23 May 2010. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.01.007. PMID 20167507.
58. ^ ^{a b c d} Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto; Jeremy Holmes (March 2000). "Meditation: concepts, effects and uses in therapy". International Journal of Psychotherapy 5 (1): 49–59. doi:10.1080/13569080050020263. http://onwww.net/trancenet.org/research/2000perezdealbeniz.shtml. Retrieved 2007-08-23.
59. ^ Dietrich Lehmann, P. L. Faber, Peter Achermann, Daniel Jeanmonod, Lorena R. R. Gianotti & Diego Pizzagalli (2001). "Brain sources of EEG gamma frequency during volitionally meditation-induced, altered states of consciousness, and experience of the self". Psychiatry Research 108 (2): 111–121. doi:10.1016/S0925-4927(01)00116-0. PMID 11738545.
60. ^ [a Talk at Mind&Life Dialogues http://www.youtube.com/user/gyalwarinpoche#p/p/B99CDF90B3832607/1/Til4yRoe6Cs]
61. ^ Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter
62. ^ `Abdu'l-Bahá (1995) [1912]. Paris Talks. Bahá'í Distribution Service. pp. 175. ISBN 1870989570. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PT/pt-55.html.
63. ^ Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. pp. 243. ISBN 1851681841.
64. ^ a speech @ Mind&Life http://www.youtube.com/user/gyalwarinpoche#p/p/B99CDF90B3832607/1/Til4yRoe6Cs
65. ^ B. Alan Wallace, Contemplative Science. Columbia University Press, 2007, p. 81.
66. ^ For more on sati, see for example, the Satipatthana Sutta. For more on concentration see kammatthana
67. ^ my introduction to this came through Venerable Tharchin, who distinguished the words for the non-dual state, or the absorption state, from other ways of shamatha, such as every day awareness. This is frequently referred to throughout Buddhism, it is the formless state. I mean it's just everywhere. It's mahamudra, it's dzogchen. It's jnana, it's The Diamond Sutra. It's in Hinduism, and the word Venerable Tharchin used for it was a Sanskrit term [which I will ask him for, so please do not delete this in the mean time]. So it's been around for throughout Hinduism, it's just almost everywhere there is mention of Buddhism and Hinduism. It is union with Siva-Sakti. It's the formless state, or the nature of mind, that we read of everywhere in Buddhist texts. Specifically one may refer to Gampopa's The Jewel Ornament of Liberation, and the chapter on the ten bhumis, at all stages of which one practices non-dual abiding.
68. ^ "The Jewel Ornament of Liberation" by Gampopa, chapter 19, part A.6.
69. ^ Reginald Ray, Secret of the Vajra World. Shambhala 2001, page 304.
70. ^ ^{a b} Sogyal, Rinpoche (1994) The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying. Patrick Gaffney and Andrew Harvey eds. New York: Harper Collins.
71. ^ Ground, Path, and Fruition: Mind-Nature Teachings Concerning the View, Meditation, and Action of Dzogpa Chenpo, the Innate Great Perfection. Compiled by Surya Das with Nyoshul Khenpo. Retrieved on; August 25, 2007.
72. ^ http://www.pnas.org/content/101/46/16369.abstract
73. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2267490/
74. ^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUQ-SV092GM
75. ^ Nobuyuki Yuasa 'Introduction' in Basho. Narrow Road to the Deep North and Other Travel Sketches Nobuyuki Yuasa (trans) Penguin Books. Harmondsworth 1966 p37
76. ^ Will Durant, The Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage, Part One (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1935), vol. 1, p. 449
77. ^ The Rosary: A Path Into Prayer by Liz Kelly 2004 ISBN 082942024X pages 79 and 86
78. ^ Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos The Mind of the Orthodox Church. IX. The “Synodikon of Orthodoxy,” 4c) Hesychasm. www.pelagia.org. Retrieved on: February 2, 2008.
79. ^ Chapters 39-40 (pp. 97-100), Johnston, William; Huston Smith (1996). The Cloud of Unknowing and the Book of Privy Counseling. New York: Image Books. ISBN 0-385-03097-5. (original publication, 1973; foreword by Huston Smith, 1996 edition)
80. ^ ^{a b} Keating, Thomas (1986/1997). Open mind, open heart. New York: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-0696-3.
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84. ^ "St. Teresa of Avila". Catholic encyclopedia. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14515b.htm. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
85. ^ "Spiritual leaders answer on prayer/meditation". The Garden Island. May 16, 2008. http://thegardenisland.com/lifestyles/article_f591606e-86fd-5936-9bc5-a6f02e1f1fe9.html.
86. ^ Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1573832278 page 12
87. ^ Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1573832278 pages 12-13
88. ^ The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3 by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2003 ISBN 9004126546 page 488
89. ^ Vatican website: Letter on certain aspects of the Christian meditation (in German), October 15, 1989
90. ^ EWTN: Letter on certain aspects of the Christian meditation (in English), October 15, 1989
91. ^ Catholicism in dialogue: conversations across traditions‎ by Wayne Teasdale 2004 ISBN 0742531783 Page 74
92. ^ Steinfels, Peter (1990-01-07). "Trying to Reconcile the Ways of the Vatican and the East". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE1D61531F934A35752C0A966958260&sec=&spon=. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
93. ^ Los Angeles Times, February 8, 2003 New Age Beliefs Aren't Christian, Vatican Finds
94. ^ BBC Feb 4, 2003 Vatican sounds New Age alert
95. ^ Vatican website
96. ^ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, page 51. The earliest reference is actually in the Mokshadharma, which dates to the early Buddhist period.
97. ^ The Katha Upanishad describes yoga, including mediation. On meditation in this and other post-Buddhist Hindu literature see Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, page 199.
98. ^ ^{a b} Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–95 location = Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. http://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA94.
99. ^ Klostermaier, Klaus (1989). A survey of Hinduism. SUNY Press. pp. 402–403. ISBN 9780887068072. http://books.google.com/?id=ltn3OuF_i4sC&pg=PA402.
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102. ^ 3 Al Emran, verses 189-194; 6 Al Anaam verses 160 to 163.
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106. ^ Khalifa, Rashad (2001). Quran: The Final Testament. Universal Unity. pp. 536.
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108. ^ "1 History and Tradition". Introduction to Jainism. JVB, Ladnun, India. 2007.
109. ^ Ahimsa - The Science Of Peace: by Surendra Bothra 1987
110. ^ "Achraya Bhadrabahu Swami". http://www.ejainism.com/bhadrabahuswami.html. Retrieved 2010-07-20.
111. ^ Jain Yoga by Acharya Mahapragya 2004
112. ^ ^{a b} "07 Yoga and Meditation (2)". Introduction To Jainism. Prakrit Bharti Academy, jaipur, India. 2006. http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=66251. Retrieved 2009-09-14.
113. ^ ^{a b} Shapiro, R. A Brief Introduction to Jewish Meditation. tripod.com. Retrieved on: August 25, 2007.
114. ^ The Hippies 1968-07
115. ^ Barnia, George (1996). religioustolerance.org The Index of Leading Spiritual Indicators. Dallas TX: Word Publishing. http://www.religioustolerance.org/newage.htm religioustolerance.org.
116. ^ http://www.spaceandmotion.com/health/yoga-meditation-new-age-spirituality.htm
117. ^ http://www.dharmacentral.com/articles/newage.htm
118. ^ Hoopes, Aaron (2007). Zen Yoga: A Path to Enlightenment though Breathing, Movement and Meditation. Kodansha International. ISBN 9784770030474.
119. ^ Stress Management Global Media, 2007 ISBN 8189940112, 9788189940119
120. ^ Harper, Donald; Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy (1999/2007). The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC.. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 880. ISBN 9780521470308. http://books.google.com/?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC&dq=cambridge++history+of+ancient+china&printsec=frontcover&q=.
121. ^ From Freedom from the Known, chapter 15. Retrieved April 24, 2010.
122. ^ Quotes by Jiddu Krishnamurti to children in 1984. Youtube video link here (at 13min 40sec). Requires Adobe Flash Player.
123. ^ Gustave Reininger, ed (1997). Centering prayer in daily life and ministry. New York: Continuum. ISBN 9780826410412. http://books.google.com/books?id=xEhaEDm7jsIC&pg=PT1&dq=isbn:9780826410412+Centering+prayer+in+daily+life+and+ministry&hl=en&ei=aH0yTLeaO8L-nAeB3d3PBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false.
124. ^ The organization Contemplative Outreach, which teaches Christian Centering Prayer, has chapters in non-Western locations in Malaysia, Singapore, and South Korea (accessed 5 July 2010)
125. ^ The Healing History of EEG Biofeedback Eagle Life Communications Accessed March 2007 .
126. ^ Atwater, FH (1997). "Inducing States of Consciousness with a Binaural Beat Technology". The Monroe Institute. http://www.monroeinstitute.com/content.php?content_id=21. Retrieved 2006-08-14.
127. ^ Noton, D (1997). "PMS, EEG, and photic stimulation". http://www.elixa.com/mental/Noton.htm. Retrieved 2006-08-14.
128. ^ Corey, G. (March 2000). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (6th ed.).. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.. pp. 550. ISBN 0534348238.
129. ^ Deane Shapiro "Towards an empirical understanding of meditation as an altered state of consciousness" in Meditation, classic and contemporary perspectives by Deane H. Shapiro, Roger N. Walsh 1984 ISBN 0202251365 page 13
130. ^ New developments in consciousness research by Vincent W. Fallio 2006 ISBN 1600212476 page 151
131. ^ Marshall, Chris. "Paradoxes of Standing Meditation". http://www.martialdevelopment.com/blog/four-paradoxes-of-standing-meditation/. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
132. ^ Smith 1986, p. 69.
133. ^ both Lama Gursam, a yogi raised in a Tibetan monastery, and Khenpo Nyima Gyaltsen, a teacher at the Drikung Kagyu college, have told me this
134. ^ Lutz, Dunne and Davidson, "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction" in The Cambridge handbook of consciousness by Philip David Zelazo, Morris Moscovitch, Evan Thompson, 2007 ISBN 0521857430 pages 498-499
135. ^ Lazar, S.W.; Bush, G.; Gollub, R. L.; Fricchione, G. L.; Khalsa, G.; Benson, H. Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation" NeuroReport: Volume 11(7) 15 May 2000 pp. 1581–1585 PubMed abstract PMID 10841380
136. ^ Kabat-Zinn, Jon; Lipworth L, Burney R. (1985). "The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain". Journal of Behavioral Medicine 8 (2): 163–190. doi:10.1007/BF00845519. PMID 3897551.
137. ^ Davidson, Richard J.; et al. (2003 July-August). "Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation". Psychosomatic Medicine 65 (4): 564–570. doi:10.1097/01.PSY.0000077505.67574.E3. PMID 12883106.
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Bibliography

• Austin, James H. (1999) Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999, ISBN 0-262-51109-6
• Azeemi, Khawaja Shamsuddin Azeemi (2005) Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation. Houston: Plato, 2005, ISBN 0-9758875-4-8
• Bennett-Goleman, T. (2001) Emotional Alchemy: How the Mind Can Heal the Heart, Harmony Books, ISBN 0-609-60752-9
• Benson, Herbert and Miriam Z. Klipper. (2000 [1972]). The Relaxation Response. Expanded Updated edition. Harper. ISBN 0-380-81595-8
• Craven JL. (1989) Meditation and psychotherapy. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Oct;34(7):648-53. PubMed abstract PMID 2680046
• Hayes SC, Strosahl KD, Wilson KG. (1999) Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. New York: Guilford Press.
• Kutz I, Borysenko JZ, Benson H. (1985) Meditation and psychotherapy: a rationale for the integration of dynamic psychotherapy, the relaxation response, and mindfulness meditation. American Journal of Psychiatry, Jan;142(1):1-8. PubMed abstract PMID 3881049
• Lazar, Sara W. (2005) "Mindfulness Research." In: Mindfulness and Psychotherapy. Germer C, Siegel RD, Fulton P (eds.) New York: Guildford Press.
• Lutz, Antoine; Richard J. Davidson; et al. (2004). "Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101 (November 16): 16369. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407401101. PMID 15534199. PMC 526201. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/101/46/16369.
• Metzner R. (2005) Psychedelic, Psychoactive and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness. In Mind-Altering Drugs: The Science of Subjective Experience, Chap. 2. Mitch Earlywine, ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• MirAhmadi, As Sayed Nurjan Healing Power of Sufi Meditation The Healing Power of Sufi Meditation Paperback: 180 pages Publisher: Islamic Supreme Council of America (June 30, 2005) Language: English
• Nirmalananda Giri, Swami (2007) Om Yoga: It's Theory and Practice In-depth study of the classical meditation method of the Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and the Upanishads.
• Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto & Holmes, Jeremy (2000) Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy. International Journal of Psychotherapy, March 2000, Vol. 5 Issue 1, p49, 10p
• Shalif, Ilan et al. (1989) Focusing on the Emotions of Daily Life (Tel-Aviv: Etext Archives, 2008)
• Shapiro DH Jr. (1992) Adverse effects of meditation: a preliminary investigation of long-term meditators. Int. Journal of Psychosom. 39(1-4):62-7. PubMed abstract PMID 1428622
• Sogyal Rinpoche, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, ISBN 0-06-250834-2
• Smith, Fritz Frederick (1986): Inner Bridges: A Guide to Energy Movement and Body Structure, Humanics Ltd. Partners, ISBN 978-0-89334-086-5.
• Tart, Charles T., editor. Altered States of Consciousness (1969) ISBN 0-471-84560-4
• Trungpa, C. (1973) Cutting Through Spiritual Materialism, Shambhala South Asia Editions, Boston, Massachusetts.
• Trungpa, C. (1984) Shambhala: The Sacred Path of the Warrior, Shambhala Dragon Editions, Boston, Massachusetts.
• Erhard Vogel. (2001) Journey Into Your Center, Nataraja Publications, ISBN 1-892484-05-6
• Wenner, Melinda. "Brain Scans Reveal Why Meditation Works." LiveScience.com. 30 June 2007.

Further reading

• Vethathiri Maharishi. Yoga for Modern life.
• Ajahn Brahm, Mindfulness Bliss and Beyond. ISBN 978-0-86171-275-5
• Cooper, David. A. The Art of Meditation: A Complete Guide. ISBN 81-7992-164-6
• Easwaran, Eknath. Meditation (see article). ISBN 0-915132-66-4 new edition: Passage Meditation. ISBN 978-1-58638-026-7. The Mantram Handbook ISBN 978-1-58638-028-1
• Krishnamurti, Jiddu. This Light in Oneself: True Meditation, 1999, Shambhala Publications. ISBN 1-57062-442-9
• Long, Barry. Meditation: A Foundation Course — A Book of Ten Lessons. ISBN 1-899324-00-3
• Hart, William. Art of Living, Vipassana Meditation, ISBN 0-06-063724-2, ISBN 978-0-06-063724-8
• Meiche, Michele. Meditation for Everyday Living. ISBN 0-9710374-6-9
• Levin, Michal. Meditation, Path to the Deepest Self, Dorling Kindersley, 2002. ISBN 978-0-7894-8333-1
• Goenka, S. N.. Meditation Now: Inner Peace through Inner Wisdom, ISBN 1-928706-23-1, ISBN 978-1-928706-23-6
• Yogananda, Paramahansa. Autobiography of a Yogi.

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